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\def\makelabel##1{\upshape ##1}}% } {\end{list}\end{raggedright}} \newenvironment{specHead}[2]% {\vspace{20pt}\hrule\vspace{10pt}% \phantomsection\label{#1}\markright{#2}% \pdfbookmark[2]{#2}{#1}% \hspace{-0.75in}{\bfseries\fontsize{16pt}{18pt}\selectfont#2}% }{} \def\TheFullDate{2016-01-15 (revised: 15 January 2016)} \def\TheID{\makeatother } \def\TheDate{2016-01-15} \title{Trade in Non-Mammalian Wild Animals for Traditional African Medicine in Ogun State, Nigeria} \author{}\makeatletter \makeatletter \newcommand*{\cleartoleftpage}{% \clearpage \if@twoside \ifodd\c@page \hbox{}\newpage \if@twocolumn \hbox{}\newpage \fi \fi \fi } \makeatother \makeatletter \thispagestyle{empty} \markright{\@title}\markboth{\@title}{\@author} \renewcommand\small{\@setfontsize\small{9pt}{11pt}\abovedisplayskip 8.5\p@ plus3\p@ minus4\p@ \belowdisplayskip \abovedisplayskip \abovedisplayshortskip \z@ plus2\p@ \belowdisplayshortskip 4\p@ plus2\p@ minus2\p@ \def\@listi{\leftmargin\leftmargini \topsep 2\p@ plus1\p@ minus1\p@ \parsep 2\p@ plus\p@ minus\p@ \itemsep 1pt} } \makeatother \fvset{frame=single,numberblanklines=false,xleftmargin=5mm,xrightmargin=5mm} \fancyhf{} \setlength{\headheight}{14pt} \fancyhead[LE]{\bfseries\leftmark} \fancyhead[RO]{\bfseries\rightmark} \fancyfoot[RO]{} \fancyfoot[CO]{\thepage} \fancyfoot[LO]{\TheID} \fancyfoot[LE]{} \fancyfoot[CE]{\thepage} \fancyfoot[RE]{\TheID} \hypersetup{citebordercolor=0.75 0.75 0.75,linkbordercolor=0.75 0.75 0.75,urlbordercolor=0.75 0.75 0.75,bookmarksnumbered=true} \fancypagestyle{plain}{\fancyhead{}\renewcommand{\headrulewidth}{0pt}} \date{} \usepackage{authblk} \providecommand{\keywords}[1] { \footnotesize \textbf{\textit{Index terms---}} #1 } \usepackage{graphicx,xcolor} \definecolor{GJBlue}{HTML}{273B81} \definecolor{GJLightBlue}{HTML}{0A9DD9} \definecolor{GJMediumGrey}{HTML}{6D6E70} \definecolor{GJLightGrey}{HTML}{929497} \renewenvironment{abstract}{% \setlength{\parindent}{0pt}\raggedright \textcolor{GJMediumGrey}{\rule{\textwidth}{2pt}} \vskip16pt \textcolor{GJBlue}{\large\bfseries\abstractname\space} }{% \vskip8pt \textcolor{GJMediumGrey}{\rule{\textwidth}{2pt}} \vskip16pt } \usepackage[absolute,overlay]{textpos} \makeatother \usepackage{lineno} \linenumbers \begin{document} \author[1]{Durojaye A Soewu} \affil[1]{ Ogun State University} \renewcommand\Authands{ and } \date{\small \em Received: 14 December 2015 Accepted: 2 January 2016 Published: 15 January 2016} \maketitle \begin{abstract} A steady rise in the patronage for Traditional African Medicine (TAM) has necessitated a corresponding increase in the demand for the ingredients used in the preparation of the trado-medicines. These ingredients are the various wild animals and plants parts. The attendant rise in this demand for ingredients calls for a need to document the extent of utilisation of these natural resources involved as a measure of the impact of such trade on biodiversity conservation. This paper examined diversity of molluscan, reptilian and avian species traded for use in TAM; the quantity of each species traded for utilisation over a period of time, and seasonal fluctuations in abundance and utilisation of these species as an index of utilisation pressure on populations in the wild. A multi-stage stratified random sampling technique was employed. An open-ended questionnaire was administered on vendors in selected market stalls for six consecutive markets days in each of dry and rainy seasons. The study identified twenty-three species, 8 were listed in CITES and Nigerian Decree 11(1985). A total of 3196 (molluscan), 2527 (reptilian), 2894 (avian) carcasses were traded over an average period of twenty days. \end{abstract} \keywords{traditional medicine; wildlife utilisation; wildlife trade; ethnozoology.} \begin{textblock*}{18cm}(1cm,1cm) % {block width} (coords) \textcolor{GJBlue}{\LARGE Global Journals \LaTeX\ JournalKaleidoscope\texttrademark} \end{textblock*} \begin{textblock*}{18cm}(1.4cm,1.5cm) % {block width} (coords) \textcolor{GJBlue}{\footnotesize \\ Artificial Intelligence formulated this projection for compatibility purposes from the original article published at Global Journals. However, this technology is currently in beta. \emph{Therefore, kindly ignore odd layouts, missed formulae, text, tables, or figures.}} \end{textblock*} \let\tabcellsep& \section[{I. Introduction}]{I. Introduction}\par ildlife is vital to the lives of a high proportion of the world's population, often the poorest. Some rural households depend on local wild animals for their meat protein and on local trees for fuel, and both wild animals and plants provide components of traditional medicines used by the majority of people in the world, \hyperref[b3]{Anon, (2016)}. Many people in the developing world depend entirely on the continued availability of local wildlife resources, {\ref Soewu (2013)}. Each year, hundreds of millions of plants and animals are caught or harvested from the wild and then sold as food, pets, ornamental plants, leather, tourist curios, and medicine. Though a great deal of this trade is legal and is nonharmful to wild populations, a large proportion is illegal and threatens the survival of many endangered species \hyperref[b3]{(Anon 2016)}. Trade in wildlife is usually for cash, though could sometimes be in exchange for other useful objects -for example, utensils in exchange for wild animal skins. Driving the trade is the end-consumer who has a need or desire for wildlife products, whether for food, construction or clothing.\par An enormous number of meat is being taken from some of the most bio-diverse forests in the world and this indicates the scale of seriousness of an ecological problem that will escalate if commercial trade goes unchecked (Bowen-Jones and Pendry, 1999; \hyperref[b7]{Caldecott, 1994;} {\ref Fa et al 1995)}.The number of animals taken by subsistence hunters can be very large. For instance in 1980, the number of mammals killed in the Brazillian Amazon alone (2,847,007 people in an area of 3,581,180km 2 ) resulted in the harvesting of 14,030,050 individuals. If birds and reptiles are added to this figure the number of game killed per year could reach more than 19 million individuals \hyperref[b15]{(Redford, 1993)}. Ott et al {\ref (2002)} reported that several regions in Asia have already experienced massive defaunation as a result of the bush meat crisis. Wilkie et al (1998) stated that it is not habitat loss but defaunation that poses the greatest immediate threat to animal conservation in forests of West and Central Africa.\par Wildlife trade involves hundreds of millions of wild plants and animals from tens of thousands of species. To provide a glimpse of the scale of wildlife trafficking, there are records of over 100 million tonnes of fish, 1.5 million live birds and 440,000 tonnes of medicinal plants in trade in just one year \hyperref[b3]{Anon (2016)}.\par Traditional medicine has over the years provided livelihood for a wide variety of people most of whom, due to their economic and social background, depend mainly on harvesting, processing and trading in wildlife and the products as their only means of making a living (Costa-Neto, 1999; Li and Wang, 1999; Soewu et al 2012). It is expected that trade in wildlife as ingredients for traditional medicine will continue to flourish as there will always be human ailments in need of attention \hyperref[b18]{(Soewu 2008}). The direct consequence of this would be a continued depletion of these resources in the wild as \hyperref[b13]{Marshall (1998)} had documented that majority of wildlife traded for use in traditional medicinal preparations are collected from the wild. Though most wildlife trade is legal, and as such by no means always a problem, it has the potential to be very damaging as it can cause overexploitation to the point where the survival of a species hangs in the balance. An average of 40\% decline in populations of species on earth was recorded between 1970 and 2000. Overexploitation of wildlife primarily for trade has been identified as the second-biggest direct threat to species survival, after habitat destruction \hyperref[b3]{(Anon, 2016)}.\par In particular, most problems associated with wildlife trade, stems from a demand for rare, sometimes highly endangered and legally protected species, more likely to have been obtained in an environmentally damaging way and which need to be smuggled or traded under clandestine conditions. There are several reports of open trade in species listed as protected in many countries across the world (Sodeinde and Soewu 1999, {\ref Kakati and Duolo, 2002;}\hyperref[b19]{Soewu et al 2012)}.\par Bowen-Jones (1998) recorded that even the animals that could be hunted sustainably are often being exploited at probably unsustainable levels, and that controls need to be introduced in order to make sure that they are not added to the vulnerable category. Chardonnet et al {\ref (2002)} has established that excessive harvest of wildlife depletes the wildlife resource when the level of exploitation overtakes the recruitment rate. However, as long as there is sufficient money to be made from the trade in wild animals, not only will the individual species suffer but also conservation at regional or even world level may be threatened, \hyperref[b20]{Simmonds (1998)}. \section[{II. Methods}]{II. Methods} \section[{a) Study Area}]{a) Study Area}\par Ogun State is entirely in the tropics. Located in the Southwest Zone of Nigeria with a total land area of {\ref 16,409.26} \section[{b) Preliminary Survey}]{b) Preliminary Survey}\par A preliminary pilot survey of the state was carried out between December 2001 and February 2002 to determine: (i) which two markets in each zone are the leading markets for traditional medicinal ingredients; (ii) the number of stall/traders in identified markets that stocks and deals primarily in ingredients for traditional medicine. This provides the basis to determine the number of traders / stalls to be involved in the main survey as a proportion of the whole number for the zone.\par Also, during this survey, the questionnaire for the main survey was subjected to trial runs to be able to establish the time needed to interview a respondent and take inventory of the stock in the stall. A stratified random sampling technique was employed in the selection of respondents. All the markets surveyed are five-day markets and the visits were made to each stall in the evening period of the market days. The market day was chosen as this is often the period when fresh supplies of animals are delivered to stalls and wares are fully displayed. This makes room for ease of inventory-taking and monitoring the dynamic movement of the stock. Each market and the stalls therein were given two sets of survey, one in each season of the year. In each market, the selection of stalls to be surveyed was done by the use of table of random numbers. The stalls were visited for six consecutive market days for a set of survey.\par A total of one hundred dealers were interviewed, and the dynamic stock movement of their stalls taken using open-ended questionnaire to avoid yes / no answers while encouraging maximum discussion i.e. twenty-five dealers in each zone. In each zone the dealers were selected from the two markets chosen for the survey. The number of dealers/stalls surveyed in each market was determined as the proportion contributed by the number of stalls in that market to the total number of stalls in the two markets for the zone. On each visit to the stalls a detailed inventory of wild animal species found was taken. The stock movement for each species was determined. \section[{d) Identification of Species}]{d) Identification of Species}\par All species encountered during survey were recorded with their local names in the market. To match the local names with the common English and Scientific names, due consultations and references were made to scientific publication that had previously established the names. Also the VCS i.e. Village Contact Survey method was used to identify some species. This involves showing published identification manuals and encyclopaedia with pictures and distinguishing features of animals to the dealers and some hunters for them to identify the animals with the local names. When the local name is established it is thereafter matched with the common English and the scientific names. \section[{e) Carcass Quantification}]{e) Carcass Quantification}\par To determine the number of carcass of each species that passed through the stall for the period, the number of that species sold out between consecutive market days were taken and summed up.\par The whole animal seen at each stall on the first visit were counted and recorded separately for each species and this was taken as the initial opening stock. During subsequent visits to the stall, the remnant numbers of each species were counted and recorded. Also the number supplied to the stall after the last count was noted for the species. This allows for observation of the dynamic stock movement and the determination of the actual number sold out during the period. Number sold out = Opening balance + Added stock -Closing balance For some species occurring in parts, the head count approach was employed to avoid repeated counts. In this method, every head of an animal species encountered are counted as whole animals while other parts are overlooked to avoid repetition.\par The main attributes of market dynamics measured during this survey are: 1. Quantity utilised by traditional medical practices as revealed by sales figures i.e. carcass number.\par 2. Frequency of occurrences and availability of each species 3. The average sales figure per stall / dealers for the species. \section[{f) Seasonality and Availability}]{f) Seasonality and Availability}\par To examine any seasonality in the availability of animals on the stalls, a Latin square design was employed in deciding randomly the time of visit to each zone. The two major seasons were subdivided for convenience of study into early and late dry, early and late rain periods. The study was also designed such that markets in each zone are surveyed twice, each survey coming up at a season different from the other. The availability of identified species for each zone was compared for the two main seasons. \section[{g) Conservation Status of Species}]{g) Conservation Status of Species}\par To evaluate the current trade status of the species encountered during the survey, due consultations / references were made to the CITES appendices for the listing on global level. Also the Endangered Species (Control of International Trade and Traffic) Decree No 11 of 1985 was consulted to determine the present conservation status of the species in the Nigerian context. \section[{III. Results}]{III. Results} \section[{a) Socio-Economic Characteristics of Respondents}]{a) Socio-Economic Characteristics of Respondents}\par The female folk dominated the trade in tradomedicinal ingredients, having constituted over 90 percent of the dealers in all the zones of the state. Majority of the dealers (64 percent) were aged between 40 and 60 years as at the time of the survey. While most of the dealers (53 percent) had post primary education, 12 percent of the dealers had no formal education. Concerning to religious affiliation, the study shows that the majority (over 55 percent) of the dealers claimed affiliation to Islamic religion. Also, the study showed that the majority (over 80 percent) of the dealers had no other means of livelihood besides the trade, and were also unaware of legislative provisions protecting wildlife species in Nigeria. Table \hyperref[tab_0]{1} showed the number of carcasses sold across the state in both dry and rainy seasons for all class of animals during the survey period. In all, 3196 molluscs, 2527 reptilian and 2894 avian whole carcasses were sold into traditional African medicinal practices. Table \hyperref[tab_2]{2} revealed species encountered during survey that were listed in appendices I and II (of CITES) as well as 1 and 2 of Nigerian Decree 11 of 1985. More than 30\% of the species encountered during the survey were listed in the appendices. Table \hyperref[tab_3]{3} gave the mean number of carcasses traded per dealer in a month in both seasons while table 4 showed the mean number of carcasses traded per dealer by zone in a month. \section[{Volume XVI Issue I Version I}]{Volume XVI Issue I Version I}\par On the number of carcasses traded, Necrosyrtes monachus had the highest figure for avian away from their homes in search of food and water, clearer visibility in less dense vegetation and some other influences like the lunar cycle. species (n=309, 10.6\%) while Kinixys spp recorded the highest for the reptiles (n=1053, 41.7\%). The general trend was that more carcasses for all the species were sold during the dry season, with the exception of Archachatina marginata, which appeared to be available and utilised more during the rainy season. According to the respondents, this trend was due to greater ease of hunting and higher volume of animals killed per expedition during the dry season. This in turn was attributed to factors including the animals moving farther As per the zones, Abeokuta recorded highest sales figure, followed by Ijebu Ode for all taxa. Ilaro had higher sales figures than Sagamu for molluscs and reptiles whereas Sagamu had a higher figure for aves. Factors responsible for this trend could not be established. ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±\par Volume XVI Issue I Version I However, being a more specialised study excluding the mammals, the number of species encountered during this survey differ from most of the previous researches. This survey recorded 23 species while Taylor and Fox (1992) recorded 55 species in Lome Fetish Market, Togo; \hyperref[b11]{Kakati and Doulo (2002)} recorded 23 species in a study on zoothrapeutic use by Chakhesang tribe of Nagaland in India; Costa-Neto (1999) encountered 17 species in zootherapeutic practices in Bahia, Brazil; Sodeinde and Soewu (1999) reported 45 species of wild animals for southwestern Nigeria while Soewu et al (2012) documented 30 species of mammals in Nigeria. For the bush meat markets, Fa et al (2000) reported 14 and 21 species respectively in 1991 and 1996 on Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea while \hyperref[b1]{Anadu et al (1988)} recorded 25 species in southwestern Nigeria. There have been more quantitative studies on the bush meat trade than the trade in wild animals for traditional medicine where there is still a dearth of data on the quantity of individual species traded for utilisation.± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± Volume XVI\par Regarding their conservation status, more than 30\% of the species encountered during this study were listed in appendices 1 and 11 of CITES and the Decree 11 {\ref (1985)} of Nigeria as against 70\% species recorded by Soewu et al 2012 and 26\% species officially listed as endangered recorded by {\ref Kakati and Duolo (2002)}.\par The dealers submitted that they have observed a general decrease in the sizes and volume (in number) of carcasses for virtually all the animals they received from suppliers. It was also established during the study that all species on the stalls visited were cropped from the wild and there were no records of any captive breeding or domestication project supplying the markets. All dealers agreed to having procured from either larger wholesale markets or directly from hunters, and sometimes from intermediaries.\par Trade in wild animals for traditional medicine has been estimated to worth billions of dollars per year globally. It has been estimated that wildlife products worth about 160 US billion dollars were legitimately imported around the globe each year in the early 1990s. This is in addition to a large and profitable illegal wildlife trade which no-one can judge with any accuracy what this may be worth because it is conducted covertly \hyperref[b3]{(Anon 2016}). The trade volume in selected markets for this study runs into excess of hundreds of thousands of naira within a month (Table \hyperref[tab_9]{5}). The price of species or parts was found to be influenced by the perceived medicinal value vis-à-vis the demand for preparations for that purpose. Animal or its part(s) used in fortune drawers and money rituals would attracted higher prices than those used for some other purposes.\par Incidences of panic buying by the traditional medical practitioners as well as hoarding by the dealers were reported, both of which had economic implications for the trade and practices. This stemmed from fluctuations in demand for wild animals and their parts based on the differences in the kind of preparations people will seek during the various period and seasons of the year as well as the prevailing situation in the society. Another factor which was found to influence seasonal changes in demand for animal species is the fear or anticipation of non-availability of such species during the forthcoming season. In situation of political crises, even if only anticipated, the demand for amulets and other preparations for protection against gun shots, cutlass and other such protective preparations weapons will increase. A period of economic crises will lead to a rise in the demand for fortune drawers and good luck charms. National public holidays and religious festive periods like Easter and sallah celebrations were known to have involved mass movement of people from one location to another hence, an increase in the demand for traditional medicinal preparations meant to prevent occurrence of accidents or to save users from sustaining any injury in case there is an accidents. Some ailments which are season-related were also found to cause fluctuations in the demand for species recognised as possessing the medicinal properties to treat such ailments. Malaria fever, common cold/catarrh and the likes which appear to have a high level of incidence during the rainy season are expected to cause a rise in the demand for species involved in the treatment of these conditions.\par The observed trend in utilisation of molluscs, reptiles and aves for traditional African medicinal practices has no consideration yet for either the present conservation status of the animals or the sustainability of continued use of these resources. Open trade in species officially listed in the appendices of various protective machineries indicated a very low level of enforcement of the protection purportedly accorded these species. The conservation status as well as the protection accorded these species need to be adequately publicised to increase the level of awareness on part of the populace concerning these issues. This is an essential pre-requisite before enforcement.\par Human-nature interaction must be established within its cultural dimensions for utilisation of animal resource for therapeutic purposes to be sustainable {\ref Kakati and Duolo (2002)}. One of the main threats to wildlife lies in the attitude of some extremist lobbying group that promotes the strict preservation of wildlife, which tends to remove all socio-economic values from wildlife \hyperref[b19]{Soewu, et al (2012)}. Chardonnet et al {\ref (2002)}, stated that a complimentary approach allows conservation issues to meet with development concerns. The old-fashioned philosophy of conservation of nature and wildlife is a defensive attitude which attempts to protect nature against the consequences of development, while the modern conservation of biodiversity is a voluntary approach which intends to match the needs of people for biological resources while securing the long-term survival of the biological richness of the Earth \hyperref[b6]{(Chardonnet et al, 2002)}. Modern conservation approach is obviously more appealing, acceptable, pragmatic and promises better results. Also, while advocating effective application of punitive measures against violators of laws protecting wild fauna species, it is essential to avoid formulating policies which may be seen as trying to force dealers to abandon their trade. \section[{V. Recommendations}]{V. Recommendations}\par To effectively factor sustainability into the ethnobiological utilisation, and ensure continued availability of renewable natural resources, two basic steps are required: reduction in need/demand for resources in the wild for trado-medicinal practices; and improvement in the yield of these resources both in the wild and under various ex-situ schemes. \section[{VI. Reduction in Need / Demand}]{VI. Reduction in Need / Demand}\par It has been documented that notwithstanding the availability of affordable health care delivery, cultural identity and recognition will continue to promote patronage for traditional medicine for peoples across the world \hyperref[b19]{(Soewu et al 2012}\hyperref[b18]{, Soewu 2008)}. A general improvement on the provision of essential amenities and overall quality of life may reduce situations that will drive the people to patronise trado-medical practices which will in turn, necessitate consumptive utilisation of wild animals without any consideration for their conservation status or sustainability of use.\par A massive enlightenment campaign should be mounted on the ecological consequences of continued exploitation of these resources beyond their sustainable level and its attendant implications for the health status of mankind now and in the future. Wildlife conservation education should be integrated into the curriculum for formal education from primary to tertiary level to make conservation an essential component of the live of every citizen \section[{a) Trade Regulation}]{a) Trade Regulation}\par A comprehensive review of the legal machineries protecting wild animals within the country is urgently needed to strike the required delicate balance between biodiversity conservation interests, sociocultural demands and political exigencies. The contents of such national law as well as international conventions and treaties regulating trade in these species and, the implications of such legal provisions should be given adequate publicity as the present level of awareness is near zero among the citizenry. \section[{Increase in Yield}]{Increase in Yield}\par Production of desired species should be enhanced through in-situ and ex-situ programmes. Insitu conservation facilities should be given adequate attention in ecosystem management practices with regular anti-poaching and surveillance patrols to minimize poaching activities and encourage maximum production. These will ensure optimally harnessing the potentials of these protected areas to conserve populations of wild animals while also serving as a source of re-populating species of interest. Ex-situ method of wildlife conservation constitute an important method of saving species on the verge of extinction. Efforts should be intensified on captive breeding, artificial propagation and ranching of possible species. This will provide animals for other uses such as protein sources thereby reducing pressure on resources in the wild. It will also provide animals for traditional medicinal practices where behavioral traits hinged on wild-based activities of the species are not pre-requisites.\par Host communities of the wild fauna resources should be integrated as partners and beneficiaries in the management of conservation areas to make compliance with laws regulating exploitation of animals easy and realistic. Enjoining their voluntary cooperation and compliance may eliminate the need for elaborate monitoring and expensive control. Legitimate trade in non-protected species should be promoted and made more beneficial to the less well-off rural populations as against the intermediaries or the better-off urban dealers. There is a need to further investigate the dynamics of wild animals' utilisation for traditional medicine across the country so as to gain an insight into the pattern and volume of consumptive use at the national level. \section[{VII. Conclusions}]{VII. Conclusions}\par Overexploitation has caused extinctions or severely threatened species and, as human populations have expanded, demand for wildlife has only increased. Recent overexploitation of wildlife for trade has affected countless species, some of which have been documented. In addition to the impact on human livelihoods caused by the over-harvesting of animals and plants is the harm caused by overexploitation of species to the living planet in a wider way. As human life depends on the existence of a functioning planet Earth, careful and thoughtful use of wildlife species and their habitats is required to avoid not only extinctions, but serious disturbances to the complex web of life.\par Prohibiting the utilisation of natural resources, most especially for reasons relating to food, health and cultural beliefs of peoples around the world has been found to be non-appealing and in-effective as the concept of wildlife conservation is often alien to them. If the need for conservation is to be accepted by people who make their livelihoods from wildlife or its use for necessities such as food and medicine, massive enlightenment campaigns and conservation education are urgently required. Care should be also be taken to avoid what may be seen as ideological or culturally imperialistic approaches. Accepting and respecting differing views of the values of wildlife is required for cooperation across all strata of the society while at the same time explaining the provisions of the various conservation laws to the populace to discourage undue violations. Finally, while wildlife trade alone has been identified as a major threat to some species, it is important to remember that its impact is frequently made worse by habitat loss and other pressures. This should be factored adequately into conservation policies and projects to ensure an all-round sustainability of renewable natural resources. \section[{Volume XVI Issue I Version I}]{Volume XVI Issue I Version I}\begin{figure}[htbp] \noindent\textbf{}\includegraphics[]{image-2.png} \caption{\label{fig_0}}\end{figure} \begin{figure}[htbp] \noindent\textbf{}\includegraphics[]{image-3.png} \caption{\label{fig_1}}\end{figure} \begin{figure}[htbp] \noindent\textbf{1}\includegraphics[]{image-4.png} \caption{\label{fig_2}Fig. 1 :}\end{figure} \begin{figure}[htbp] \noindent\textbf{}\includegraphics[]{image-5.png} \caption{\label{fig_3}}\end{figure} \begin{figure}[htbp] \noindent\textbf{2}\includegraphics[]{image-6.png} \caption{\label{fig_4}Fig. 2 :}\end{figure} \begin{figure}[htbp] \noindent\textbf{1} \par \begin{longtable}{P{0.5376068376068376\textwidth}P{0.12350427350427351\textwidth}P{0.03632478632478633\textwidth}P{0.05811965811965812\textwidth}P{0.09444444444444444\textwidth}} Zone\tabcellsep Ijebu -Ode Sagamu\tabcellsep Ilaro\tabcellsep Abeokuta\tabcellsep All locations\\ \multicolumn{5}{l}{Season Dry Rain BothDry RainBothDry RainBothDry RainBoth Dry Rain Both}\end{longtable} \par \caption{\label{tab_0}Table 1 :}\end{figure} \begin{figure}[htbp] \noindent\textbf{} \par \begin{longtable}{P{0.010170940170940172\textwidth}P{0.13754985754985755\textwidth}P{0.05230769230769231\textwidth}P{0.12156695156695158\textwidth}P{0.19179487179487179\textwidth}P{0.2683190883190883\textwidth}P{0.06829059829059829\textwidth}} \tabcellsep English Name\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Scientific Name}\tabcellsep Local Name\\ \tabcellsep African python\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Python sebae}\tabcellsep Ere\tabcellsep 22 13 35 19 12 31 24 17 41 23 17 40 88 59 147\\ \tabcellsep Senegal\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ \tabcellsep chameleon\tabcellsep \multicolumn{3}{l}{Chamaeleo senegalensis Oga}\tabcellsep 65 51 116 54 47 101 56 44 100 71 60 131 246 202 448\\ \tabcellsep Nile crocodile\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Crocodylus niloticus}\tabcellsep Oni\tabcellsep 9 10 19 9 8 17 6 7 13 14 13 27 38 38 76\\ \tabcellsep Gabon viper\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Bitis gabonica}\tabcellsep Paramole 32 27 59 26 20 46 28 21 49 36 30 66 122 98 220\\ \tabcellsep Mamba\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Dendroaspis spp}\tabcellsep Sebe\tabcellsep 45 14 59 36 34 70 37 34 71 32 30 62 150 112 262\\ \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep 396 270 666 317 244 561 322 263 585 395 320 715 1430 1097 2527\\ \tabcellsep Avian species\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ \tabcellsep Red eye dove\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Streptoprelia semitorquata Adaba}\tabcellsep 33 21 54 30 28 58 28 25 53 36 30 66 127 104 231\\ \tabcellsep Blue-eared\tabcellsep glossy\tabcellsep \\ \tabcellsep starling\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Lamprotornis chalybaus}\tabcellsep Agbe\tabcellsep 35 30 65 29 26 55 31 27 58 40 32 72 135 115 250\\ Year 2016\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Pied crow Little grebe Carmine bee-eater}\tabcellsep Corvus albus Tachybaptus ruficollis Merops nubicus\tabcellsep Akalamagbo 33 26 59 30 27 57 30 25 55 39 30 69 132 108 240 Ako 27 19 46 20 16 36 23 18 41 31 26 57 101 79 180 Aluko 32 26 58 30 23 53 30 28 58 41 31 72 133 108 241\\ \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Double-spurred}\tabcellsep \\ \tabcellsep francolin\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Francolinus bicalcaratus}\tabcellsep Aparo\tabcellsep 36 27 63 31 27 58 31 27 58 40 32 72 138 113 251\\ \tabcellsep Black kite\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Milvus migrans\tabcellsep Asa\tabcellsep 28 17 45 26 20 46 22 20 42 30 25 55 106 82 188\\ \tabcellsep Harrier hawk\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Polyboroides radiatus\tabcellsep Awodi\tabcellsep 24 15 39 19 13 32 20 14 34 29 25 54 92 67 159\\ \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{African grey parrot}\tabcellsep Psittacus erithacus\tabcellsep Ayekooto\tabcellsep 30 22 52 25 19 44 24 20 44 34 26 60 113 87 200\\ \tabcellsep Hooded vulture\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Necrosyrtes monachus}\tabcellsep Igun\tabcellsep 41 34 75 40 35 75 37 31 68 53 38 91 171 138 309\\ \tabcellsep Cattle egret\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Ardeola ibis\tabcellsep Lekeleke\tabcellsep 35 24 59 35 31 66 33 26 59 43 29 72 146 110 256\\ \tabcellsep Indian peafowl\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Pavo cristatus\tabcellsep Okin\tabcellsep 10 7 17 8 5 13 5 2 7 14 7 21 37 21 58\\ \tabcellsep Barn owl\tabcellsep \tabcellsep Tyto alba\tabcellsep Owiwi\tabcellsep 21 12 33 19 14 33 18 15 33 29 23 52 87 64 151\\ \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Spotted eagle owl}\tabcellsep Bubo africanus\tabcellsep Owiwi\tabcellsep 27 20 47 22 14 36 24 16 40 32 25 57 105 75 180\\ \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep 412 300 712 364298 662 356294 650 491379 870 16231271 2894\\ D D D D )\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ ( B\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par \caption{\label{tab_1}}\end{figure} \begin{figure}[htbp] \noindent\textbf{2} \par \begin{longtable}{P{0.22755905511811025\textwidth}P{0.4885826771653543\textwidth}P{0.08366141732283465\textwidth}P{0.05019685039370079\textwidth}} Common name\tabcellsep Scientific name\tabcellsep CITES\tabcellsep Decree 11\\ Black kite\tabcellsep Milvus migrans\tabcellsep II\tabcellsep 1\\ Vulture\tabcellsep Necrosyrtes\tabcellsep II\tabcellsep 2\\ \tabcellsep monachus\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ Parrot\tabcellsep Psittacus erithacus\tabcellsep II\tabcellsep 1\\ Owl\tabcellsep Tyto alba\tabcellsep II\tabcellsep \\ Chameleon\tabcellsep Chameleon\tabcellsep II\tabcellsep \\ \tabcellsep senegalensis\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ Crocodile\tabcellsep Crocodylus miloticus\tabcellsep I / II\tabcellsep 1\\ Python\tabcellsep Python sebae\tabcellsep II\tabcellsep 1\\ Monitor\tabcellsep Varanus miloticus\tabcellsep II\tabcellsep 1\end{longtable} \par {\small\itshape [Note: Source: FieldSurvey, 2005 ]} \caption{\label{tab_2}Table 2 :}\end{figure} \begin{figure}[htbp] \noindent\textbf{3} \par \begin{longtable}{P{0.85\textwidth}} Source: Field Survey, 2005\end{longtable} \par \caption{\label{tab_3}Table 3 :}\end{figure} \begin{figure}[htbp] \noindent\textbf{} \par \begin{longtable}{P{0.85\textwidth}} Year 2016\\ D D D D )\\ ( B\end{longtable} \par \caption{\label{tab_5}}\end{figure} \begin{figure}[htbp] \noindent\textbf{4} \par \begin{longtable}{P{0.85\textwidth}} Source: Field Survey, 2005\end{longtable} \par \caption{\label{tab_6}Table 4 :}\end{figure} \begin{figure}[htbp] \noindent\textbf{} \par \begin{longtable}{P{0.85\textwidth}} Year 2016\\ D D D D )\\ ( B\end{longtable} \par {\small\itshape [Note: Issue I Version I © 2016 Global Journals Inc. (US)]} \caption{\label{tab_8}}\end{figure} \begin{figure}[htbp] \noindent\textbf{5} \par \begin{longtable}{P{0.46673250564334084\textwidth}P{0.003357787810383747\textwidth}P{0.03933408577878104\textwidth}P{0.02974040632054176\textwidth}P{0.03933408577878104\textwidth}P{0.02590293453724605\textwidth}P{0.04221218961625282\textwidth}P{0.12903498871331828\textwidth}P{0.0743510158013544\textwidth}} \tabcellsep \tabcellsep Season\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Unit Price Range*}\tabcellsep \\ \tabcellsep \tabcellsep Dry\tabcellsep Rain\tabcellsep Both\tabcellsep Whole\tabcellsep Price (NGN)\tabcellsep Parts\tabcellsep Price (NGN)\\ Common Name\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ Molluscs\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ African giant snail\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 1589\tabcellsep 1607\tabcellsep 3196\tabcellsep X\tabcellsep 150\tabcellsep \\ Reptilian species\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ Cobra\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 119\tabcellsep 94\tabcellsep 213\tabcellsep X **\tabcellsep 3500\tabcellsep Head, skin\tabcellsep 600-1000\\ Tortoise\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 607\tabcellsep 446\tabcellsep 1053\tabcellsep X\tabcellsep 1200\tabcellsep Head, carapace\tabcellsep 200-400\\ Nile monitor\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 60\tabcellsep 48\tabcellsep 108\tabcellsep X **\tabcellsep 3000\tabcellsep Head, skin\tabcellsep 900-1300\\ African python\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 88\tabcellsep 59\tabcellsep 147\tabcellsep X**\tabcellsep 4000\tabcellsep Head, skin\\ Senegal chameleon\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 246\tabcellsep 202\tabcellsep 448\tabcellsep X\tabcellsep 500\tabcellsep \\ Nile crocodile\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 38\tabcellsep 38\tabcellsep 76\tabcellsep X**\tabcellsep 6000\tabcellsep Head, skin\tabcellsep 1500-2500\\ Gabon viper\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 122\tabcellsep 98\tabcellsep 220\tabcellsep X\tabcellsep 600\tabcellsep Head, skin\tabcellsep 200-350\\ Mamba\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 150\tabcellsep 112\tabcellsep 262\tabcellsep X\tabcellsep 500\tabcellsep Head, skin\tabcellsep 150-200\\ Avian species\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ Red eye dove\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 127\tabcellsep 104\tabcellsep 231\tabcellsep X\tabcellsep 600\tabcellsep Head, feathers\tabcellsep 100-250\\ \multicolumn{2}{l}{Blue-eared glossy starling}\tabcellsep 135\tabcellsep 115\tabcellsep 250\tabcellsep X\tabcellsep 800\tabcellsep Head, feathers\tabcellsep 100-300\\ Pied crow\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 132\tabcellsep 108\tabcellsep 240\tabcellsep X\tabcellsep 2500\tabcellsep Head, feathers\tabcellsep 200-600\\ Little grebe\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 101\tabcellsep 79\tabcellsep 180\tabcellsep X\tabcellsep 1200\tabcellsep Head, feathers\tabcellsep 100-400\\ Carmine bee-eater\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 133\tabcellsep 108\tabcellsep 241\tabcellsep X\tabcellsep 900\tabcellsep Head, feathers\tabcellsep 120-400\\ \multicolumn{2}{l}{Double-spurred francolin}\tabcellsep 138\tabcellsep 113\tabcellsep 251\tabcellsep X\tabcellsep 400\tabcellsep Head, feathers\tabcellsep 100-180\\ Black kite\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 106\tabcellsep 82\tabcellsep 188\tabcellsep X\tabcellsep 1200\tabcellsep Head, feathers\tabcellsep 150-300\\ Harrier hawk\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 92\tabcellsep 67\tabcellsep 159\tabcellsep X\tabcellsep 1000\tabcellsep Head, feathers\tabcellsep 120-300\\ African grey parrot\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 113\tabcellsep 87\tabcellsep 200\tabcellsep X\tabcellsep 1200\tabcellsep Head, feathers\tabcellsep 150-400\\ Hooded vulture\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 171\tabcellsep 138\tabcellsep 309\tabcellsep X\tabcellsep 1500\tabcellsep Head, feathers\tabcellsep 150-600\\ Cattle egret\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 146\tabcellsep 110\tabcellsep 256\tabcellsep X\tabcellsep 400\tabcellsep Head, feathers\tabcellsep 100-150\\ Indian peafowl\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 37\tabcellsep 21\tabcellsep 58\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep Feathers\tabcellsep 300-700\\ Barn owl\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 87\tabcellsep 64\tabcellsep 151\tabcellsep X\tabcellsep 400\tabcellsep Head, feathers\tabcellsep 120-250\\ Spotted eagle owl\tabcellsep \tabcellsep 105\tabcellsep 75\tabcellsep 180\tabcellsep X\tabcellsep 450\tabcellsep Head, feathers\tabcellsep 120-250\\ \multicolumn{3}{l}{* Carcass sold in fragmented parts}\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ \multicolumn{4}{l}{**requires pre-payment for contract hunting}\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ \multicolumn{3}{l}{IV. Discussion}\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ Traditional\tabcellsep African\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{medicinal}\tabcellsep practices\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ \multicolumn{5}{l}{consume a wide variety and vast quantity of wild}\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ \multicolumn{5}{l}{mammals as revealed by the sales figure for each of the}\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ \multicolumn{5}{l}{species encountered in this study. Trade in wild animals}\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ \multicolumn{5}{l}{for traditional medicine cuts across all the taxa in}\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ \multicolumn{5}{l}{molluscs, aves and reptiles and also involved all age}\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ \multicolumn{5}{l}{grades and sexes available in agreement with several}\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ \multicolumn{5}{l}{previous authors (Ntiamoa-Baidu 1987; Kakati and}\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ \multicolumn{5}{l}{Duolo, 1999; Costa-Neto 1999; Adeola 1992; Marshall}\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ \multicolumn{5}{l}{1998: Soewu et al 2012). Most of these species are}\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\ \multicolumn{4}{l}{already under pressure from over-exploitation.}\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par \caption{\label{tab_9}Table 5 :}\end{figure} \footnote{© 2016 Global Journals Inc. (US)} \footnote{© 2016 Global Journals Inc. (US) Trade in Non-Mammalian Wild Animals for Traditional African Medicine in Ogun State, Nigeria} \backmatter \begin{bibitemlist}{1} \bibitem[Linares and Pagezy]{b16}\label{b16} \textit{}, O F Linares , H Pagezy . Parthenon Publishing Group. p. . \bibitem[Bowen-Jones ()]{b4}\label{b4} \textit{A Review of the Commercial Bushmeat Tade and the Great Apes}, Bowen-Jones . 1998. Evan. (Report for the Ape Alliance) \bibitem[John et al. ()]{b10}\label{b10} ‘Bushmeat markets on Bioko Island as a Measure of Hunting Pressure’. Fa John , E , JuanE , Garcia Yuste , Ramon Castelo . \textit{Conservation Biology} 2000. 14 (6) p. . \bibitem[Simmonds ()]{b20}\label{b20} ‘Changing conservation aims: who will represent wildlife’. M Simmonds . \textit{Oryx} 1998. 32 (2) p. . \bibitem[Fa ()]{b9}\label{b9} ‘Hunted Animals in Bioko Island’. J E Fa . \textit{Hunting for Sustainability in Tropical Forests Columbia University Press}, J G Robinson, E L Bennet (ed.) (New York) 2000. p. . 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