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             \author[1]{Girmay  tsegay}

             \author[2]{Tesfahun  Aklog}

             \author[3]{Gebeyaw  Tiruneh}

             \affil[1]{  Debre Markos}

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\date{\small \em Received: 7 December 2012 Accepted: 4 January 2013 Published: 15 January 2013}

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\begin{abstract}
        


Introduction-Since the early times, medicinal plants have been used in healing and preventing diseases. The chronic use of substance(s) can cause some irreversible physical and psychological development 1 . The use of substance could be beneficial or harmful depending on how it is been used. Substance(s) could bring about a change in the biological function of living organism through its chemical composition 4 . It can also modify perception, cognition, mood, behaviour, and general body function 9 . They could thus be considered as chemical modifiers of the living tissues that could bring about psychological and behavioural changes 11 . The use and abuse of substance(s) by youths have become one of the most disturbing health related phenomena in society; several youths have become insane, irresponsible and liability to the society.Substance(s) can be used for treatment or prevention of disease in man or animals; it also alters the body function, either positively or negatively, depending on the body composition of the user, type of substance(s) used, dose used, or combination with other substance(s) at the same time 3 . NAFDAC explains the term substance abuse as the excessive and persistent usage of a substance without regard to the medically or culturally accepted patterns.

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\section[{Assessment of Substance Abuse among Students of College of Health Sciences and Technology Ijero Ekiti}]{Assessment of Substance Abuse among Students of College of Health Sciences and Technology Ijero Ekiti}\par
Boluwaji Akinsefunmi ? , Ogboh Rita ? , Hassan Aminat ? \& Babalola Rufus ? Chapter One I. Introduction ince the early times, medicinal plants have been used in healing and preventing diseases. The chronic use of substance(s) can cause some irreversible physical and psychological development \hyperref[b0]{1} . The use of substance could be beneficial or harmful depending on how it is been used. Substance(s) could bring about a change in the biological function of living organism through its chemical composition \hyperref[b3]{4} . It can also modify perception, cognition, mood, behaviour, and general body function  {\ref 9} . They could thus be considered as chemical modifiers of the living tissues that could bring about psychological and behavioural changes \hyperref[b10]{11} . The use and abuse of substance(s) by youths have become one of the most disturbing health related phenomena in society; several youths have become insane, irresponsible and liability to the society.\par
Substance(s) can be used for treatment or prevention of disease in man or animals; it also alters the body function, either positively or negatively, depending on the body composition of the user, type of substance(s) used, dose used, or combination with other substance(s) at the same time \hyperref[b2]{3} . NAFDAC explains the term substance abuse as the excessive and persistent usage of a substance without regard to the medically or culturally accepted patterns. It could also be viewed as the use of substance(s) to the extent that it interferes with the health and social function of an individual \hyperref[b7]{8} . In essence, substance abuse may be defined as the arbitrary over dependence or misuse of substance(s) with or without prior medical diagnosis from qualified health practitioners. Substance abuse can plainly be seen as the recurrent use of illegal substance(s) or misuse of the legal ones.\par
Substance abusers who exhibit symptoms of stress, anxiety, depression, behavioural changes, fatigue, and loss of appetite should be treated by medical experts and counsellors. Since the beginning of history, humans have searched for substances that would sustain and protect them and also act on the nervous system to produce pleasurable sensations \hyperref[b9]{10} . Drugs are believed to provide pleasure because they give inner peace and satisfaction, relax the muscles and heighten sensation \hyperref[b1]{2} . Students in Nigeria experiment with drugs without knowing which drug to take, when to take it and how to take it \hyperref[b6]{7} , and presently, risky alcohol use among students has become a serious public health issue in Nigeria  {\ref 6} .\par
The campus environment is free and young people often use substance to reassure themselves that they are able to express their freedom, some for the first time in their lives, which is a part of normal adolescent processes and perception of drugs as socially acceptable are all denominators of alcohol expectancy. Many adolescents use alcohol experimentally, sometimes frequently and sometimes consuming multiple drinks per occasion, without engaging in other problem behaviour's or experiencing immediate negative consequences \hyperref[b2]{3} . It is a popular belief and equally a strong conviction among higher education students that the campus is a place of freedom and the perceived freedom ranges from academic to social, relationship, religious, and speech. The use of substance is most prominent in tertiary institutions where we have academic freedom and students do things at their own free will. Youths who are exposed to or who observe adults who drink and smoke may want to experiment to see how it feels \hyperref[b9]{10} . If intervention is not quickly provided, this may signal the beginning of drug use and subsequently substance abuse and dependence.\par
A major factor in the use of substance by adolescents is concerned with sensation seeking and risk-taking tendencies and these tendencies are part of the normal developmental process for young people \hyperref[b9]{10} . Youths or college students are in the stage of their lives where they experiment and look for new experiences, they want to try things out for themselves rather than relying on information provided by others. This sets them up to be vulnerable to the temptation to experiment with drugs/substance especially psychoactive ones. Many college students use legal drugs such as caffeine, nicotine or alcohol without much thought because their use is socially acceptable. The use of tobacco, alcohol, stimulants and other substances is a worldwide phenomenon. Youths get "high" from abusing substances such as inhalants, alcohol and cannabis among others \hyperref[b2]{3} .\par
The negative consequences of substance abuse on the well-being of Nigerian youths in all ramifications, has necessitated a clarion call for the Nigerian society to live up to it responsibility. Presently, youths vividly express high level of morally bankruptcy, decadent and helplessness detrimental to their growth and national development \hyperref[b0]{1} . The Nigerian youths, considering the high level of competitiveness among nations of the world due to globalization are supposed to serve as the nexus of development and technological advancement. However, this expectation could be a mirage if the Nigerian youths with their challenge of drug abuse are not helped, re-orientated, revitalized and collectively salvaged together in order to prevent the total degeneration and loss of our societal values and ideals and a potential human capital developmental disaster. This is premised on the fact that the menace of substance abuse has eaten very deep into the fabrics of our society \hyperref[b4]{5} . Majority of the Nigerian youths ignorantly without being aware of the consequences depend on one form of drug or the other for their various daily activities -social, educational, political, moral, etc. However, the consequences of substance abuse are so devastating and very shameful to the extent that both national and international organizations are also worried about the spread of this scourge among the Nigerian youths resulting to social violence among youths, armed robbery, mental disorders, 419 syndrome, social miscreants (Area boys and girls), school dropout, lawlessness, lack of respect for elders, rape, and many more of the social evils  {\ref 9} .\par
Therefore, the growing concern is that youths in Nigeria are highly involved in substance abuse at an alarming rate. For young people, substance abuse interferes with their cognitive and emotional development, increases the chance of accidental injury and death, and magnifies the likelihood of drug dependency. Substance abuse is a major gateway to crime and this undermine development by eroding social and human capital development. This degrades quality of life and has negative impact on the functioning and productive ability of youths \hyperref[b13]{14} .\par
This brings to bear the fact that though substance abuse is a major public health problem all over the world \hyperref[b10]{11} . The use and abuse of substance have become one of the most disturbing health related phenomena in Nigeria and other parts of the world. It could also be viewed as the use of a drug to the extent that it interferes with the health and social function of an individual. Drug abuse is defined as the non-medical use of a drug that interferes with a healthy and productive life  {\ref 13} . Drug abuse is the excessive, maladaptive or addictive use of drugs for non-medical purpose  {\ref 12} . It can also be viewed as the unlawful overdose in the use of substance.\par
Majority of Nigerian youths ignorantly depend on one form of substance or the other for their various daily activities -social, educational, political, moral etc. Such drugs include: Tobacco, Indian hemp, cocaine, morphine, Heroine, Alcohol, ephedrine, Madras, Caffeine, Glue, Barbiturates, Amphetamines, etc.  {\ref 6} in their studies on perception of Drug Abuse amongst Nigerian undergraduates identified dependence and addiction as one of the major consequence of drug abuse, characterized by compulsive drug craving seeking behaviours that persist even in the face of negative consequences. These changes are maladaptive and inappropriate to the social or environmental setting and could place the individual at risk of harm. In view of this context therefore, drug use among young people should be a matter of concern to all Nigerians, especially the government, parents, school heads, the leaders of religious groups and other NGO's \hyperref[b6]{7} . 
\section[{a) Background of the Study}]{a) Background of the Study}\par
The consumption of substance(s) such as alcohol, amphetamine, cannabis, marijuana, caffeine, tobacco among others are now been taken frequently in large quantities by youths as they constitute the high risk of drug abusers. Today more youths are becoming drug dependent; those who are mainly from well-to-do homes are increasingly identified with the big boy  {\ref 6} .\par
The history of using mind-altering substance in excess, or in a manner disapproved by society, is as old as the human race. Fermented beverages were probably used by prehistoric humans, who depicted their effects on cave walls. Opium and marijuana have been in worldwide use for centuries and the Indians of South America recognized the stimulant properties of the coca plant long before the Spanish conquest. It is stated that all naturally occurring sedatives, narcotics, euphoriants, hallucinogens and excitants were discovered thousands of years back \hyperref[b7]{8} .\par
Each society develops rules and guidelines for the use of substance. Although the Bible frequently mentions wine in approving terms, it warns against drunkenness. In some cultures, men may drink fermented beverages to intoxication; women and children who do so may be punished. Alcohol use is widely accepted in western society, but its use is prohibited and condemned in Islamic cultures. In the eastern world, opium was once a widely accepted recreational drug. In the United State and England, it was available on grocery store shelves until the late nineteenth century Cocaine, the ingredient that was responsible about 100 years ago for making Coca-Cola "the pause that refreshes" is now an illegal drug in the United States. In the last decade or so, the growing rate of substance abuse has been causing a lot of concern in schools, government circles and the society at large. Substance abuse is not limited to any social and economic group neither is it limited to a particular sex or religion. Investigation into dimensions of this phenomenon has become necessary for it has become a cankerworm amongst youths especially students in many institutions in Nigeria. \hyperref[b17]{19} .\par
Drug is any chemical substance which when taken into a body organism modify one or more of its functions. In accordance with a definition substance such as alcohol, heroin and caffeine are drugs because these substances bring about modifications in behaviour by influencing co-ordination of the central Nervous System and sometime change the functions of the cell. Any chemical substances other than food that affects living organisms are drugs. Even common plants and animal preparations that are not pharmaceutical products but made for corrective purposes are drugs. To this group belong herbs, plants exudates latex, juice powder. \hyperref[b2]{3} The current trend of indiscipline among students and Nigerian youths in general has become so rampant that successive governments have sought for ways of combating its problems as a result of this unwholesome trend, school Boards, University Communities and Non-governmental Organization (NGOS) such as Youth Clubs, Philanthropic Organizations, Federal and State Governments and their parastatals, particularly the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) have organized programmes to create awareness about the dangers of drugs and substance abuse  {\ref 18} .\par
Major-General Mohammed Buhari's regime (1983) for example, sought for adequate ways to eradicate social slogan popularly known as "War Against Indiscipline" (WAI). Some of the societal ills addresses were: \hyperref[b10]{11} ? Disorderliness in public places ? Criminal activities like armed robbery, drug trafficking, and money laundering; ? Wanton destruction of public property and arson. ? Official corruption in all spheres of nation's life. ? Economic sabotage and graft by public officers, oil bunkering, currency trafficking, fraud, bribery and corruption (the main focus of the regime was to sanitize the polity and restore national values. General Ibrahim Babangida's regime (1985-1993) also tried to curb the influence of drugs which led to the promulgation of Degree IV and V of 1989 establishing the national Drug Law Enforcement Agency \hyperref[b10]{11} .\par
Similarly the Federal Ministry of Health (FMH) with the World Health Organization (WHO) later joined the International Council on Alcoholism and Addiction (ICAA) to curb drug addiction. Since then serious efforts have been made to conduct researches on the problems of drug abuse and the way of combating them by the NDLEA. This notwithstanding, alcohol, and cannabis still remain the most common substances of abuse in Africa. Existing literature on alcohol consumption among adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa suggests that a substantial proportion of adolescents have consumed or currently consume alcohol. Two studies conducted among students and among nationally representative samples of in and out of school youths found that the prevalence of lifetime alcohol use was approximately 25\%. Substance misuse is a growing problem in Nigeria, as in many developing countries. Alcohol and cannabis are the most frequent substances of abuse  {\ref 18} .\par
The World Health Organization (WHO (2006) also defined drug abuse as a "state" of periodic or chronic intoxication, detrimental to the individual and to the society, produced by the repeated consumption of a drug (natural or synthetic). Drug abuse patterns include all aspect of drug usage by the youths ranging from how much, how often and what sort of drugs, where who, with, what circumstances and so on  {\ref 18} .\par
The analysis of contemporary social problem has consistently proved more and more controversial. There is a growing public concern in our country, Nigeria, about involvement of adolescents and young adult in drug abuse, which is defined as the nonmedical use of substances by human beings that may modify one or more of its functions and may impair an individual ability to function effectively and may result in social physical or emotional harm. While it is universally accepted that drugs can be of tremendous benefit to man and society, it is also acknowledged that inappropriate use of drugs can be harmful to man .The personal, social and public health problems associated with psychoactive substance use, have continued to arouse worldwide interest and concern. Various reports and researches conducted have illustrated this phenomenon \hyperref[b14]{15} . Drugs/substance abuse is a worldwide hazard with dangerous complications that affect many countries around the globe, Nigeria inclusive. The problem varies from place to place.\par
The African seminar on problems of drug dependence held in Lagos, Nigeria declared that "Drug abuse and dependence producing substances are widely prevalent in African countries have continue to increase. These problems affect the individual, the family and the society in general. Substance abuse which was originally conceived as the problem of a selected few is today becoming a problem of a sizeable proportion of the world population \hyperref[b16]{17} . The problem is so grave that it has extended beyond the usual characteristic profile of abusers being male, adult, and urban-based to now include females, youngsters and those who live in rural areas. Its economic effect is so devastating that it is estimated that the annual retail cost of psychotropic substances by prescription is over two billion naira while the alcoholic industry which produces over five billion gallons of alcoholic beverages annually generate more than four billion naira from sales to a consumer population of about 30-35 million people \hyperref[b18]{20} . Illicit Drug traffic known to generate huge profit and fortune and that is one reason why it has been very difficult to combat the drug traffic in spite of several laws that have been promulgated. For instance, it has been estimated that the sum of \$400billion is the turnover of illicit drug industry, which is equivalent of approximately 8\%of total international trade and therefore larger than the trade in iron steel, motor vehicle, textile, tourism \hyperref[b18]{20} .\par
Substance abuse and other associated problems constitute a major threat to the survival and effective functioning of human societies, lives are lost daily through addiction and activities of addicts. A significant number of deaths from accidents and violent crimes have been traced to the activities of persons under the influence of drugs. Treatment facilities nationwide are now gradually being over burden with drug-related problems and cases. The need to prevent drug abuse among the general population and by the growing generation of Nigeria thus becomes imperatives. Nigeria which once served only as transshipment route for drugs soon became a "consumer" country when it was observed that the increasing incidence of drug abuse among students is a contributory factor in the ugly confrontation between school administrators and students  {\ref 12} .\par
The problem of substance abuse poses a far greater health hazard than most imagine. Psychoactive drugs and substances have the primary effect on the mind such as altering mood, feelings, perceptions and behaviors. These drugs are usually taken to give insulation from the real world and its difficulties. This is accompanied by the feeling that varies according to the drugs used. This is common to those whose personality development is insufficient to enable them cope with the normal life \hyperref[b14]{15} . One of the hazards of using of drugs/ substance to alter mood and feeling is that some individuals eventually develop dependent on the drug. They have diminished flexibility in terms of their behavior toward a particular drug or substance. They became dependent on the drug for their feeling well being. The intensity of this need or dependent may vary from mild desire to a craving or compulsion to use the drug/ substance and when the availability of the drug is uncertain they may exhibit a pre-occupation with its procurements  {\ref 9} . In extreme form, their behavior exhibits the characteristics of a chronic relapsing disorder, this is a state referred to as "addiction or dependence". The substances commonly abused include tobacco, alcohol, stimulants like caffeine, nicotine, cannabinoids, amphetamine, volatile solvents like glue, petrol, diethyl ether, chloroform correction fluid, psychotropic medicines such as sedatives, anxiolytics, hypnotics etc. Most of the drugs being abused are beneficial, but also have devastating after effects such as psychosis, paranoid schizophrenia, and chronic addiction with all the implications of mental and physical dependency  {\ref 13} . Some of the social and environmental contributory factors associated with substance/drug abuse include living away from home, relaxed parental control, alienation from family, early exposure to drugs, peer influence, easy access to the drugs and their availability etc. 
\section[{b) Statement of Problem}]{b) Statement of Problem}\par
The population of students in Nigeria's tertiary institutions has increased tremendously in recent time's .Statistical data shows that about one million five hundred thousand students are enrolled in more than 344 institutions in the country. Survey has revealed that Nigeria has about 63 Colleges of education, 50 polytechnics, 61 Monotechnics, 70 professional institutions which includes (school of Nursing, colleges of health technology, vocational institutes and the rest...) Figures in the last few years shows that Nigeria has over 100 universities altogether 33\% accounts for the federal university while 44\% accounts for the state university and 23\% accounts for the private university  {\ref 9} .\par
The Nigerian youths constitutes (70\%) of the entire population which is (124.95million) out of (178.5million) the general population and about (43\%) of this population are affected with substance abuse and (28\%) are students of various institutions.Globally, there were about 190 million substance abusers. Out of these substance abusers, around 40 million serious illnesses or injuries were identified each year; the trend is increasing as period goes. Recent trends indicate that the use of substances have dramatically increased particularly to claim the lives of 15 million people annually  {\ref 6} . In recent years, the Federal government has approved billions of naira to drug enforcement agency (NDLEA) in collaboration with World Health Organization (W H O) to establish and maintain rehabilitation centres to cater for drug abusers that has been affected psychologically and has been mentally derailed \hyperref[b10]{11} .\par
Consequently, about 14\% out of the 28\% of the students that are involved in substances abuse usually becomes mentally derailed and they undergo rehabilitation and the remaining percentage of people exhibit deviant characters. Statistical analysis conducted by the W.H.O shows that a total of 15\% deaths that can be traced to substance abuse are recorded annually 7\% also accounted for youths  {\ref 6} .\par
Today, drug misuse and abuse is a major problem worldwide. Its extent and characteristics however vary from region to region although trends among the youths especially have begun to converge over these recent years. The most commonly used and abused substance is cannabis and alcohol. Alcohol and other related problems are becoming more a public health concern. The misuse of alcohol represents one of the leading causes of preventable death, illness and injury. Other common substances are inhalants, heroine and cocaine. This abuse is believed to be associated with increasing amounts consumed, frequency of use and groups involved \hyperref[b6]{7} .\par
The substance abuse problem in Nigeria is no different from other countries though there may be variations in the magnitude of the problem. It is difficult to say when it actually became a problem in Nigeria but its existence according to educated guesses could be traced as far back as the 1960s' after independence. Currently, use and abuse of drugs have expanded to include the youths \hyperref[b9]{10} . This gives evidence that the people mostly affected are the young and strong who can contribute effectively to the economy of the country. Increasing youth's involvement in substance use and abuse is a major threat to national development, family stability and social security of the country.\par
To address these problems, various programs in Nigeria both official and unofficial have made several efforts towards curbing the menace of drug abuse (cigarette and hard drugs) of which the youths are the most gullible victims. Numbers of studies have also been carried out among in-school or out -of -school youths to gas their baseline information about the extent of the problem with respect to specific drugs such as tobacco. There is however the need to have information on the other commonly abused substances as well. This is because any sustained program that will bring interactions between the youths and their educators to allow opportunities for creating greater understanding of drug abuse and its social repercussions. Obviously a locally designed study aimed at vividly describing the extent of the problem on a broader scale looking at in school and out of school youths.  {\ref 6} Besides, the World Health Organization (WHO) through its Regional Strategy for Mental Health, aims at prevention and control of mental health and substance abuse disorders. It has a mandate to assist countries in assessing the magnitude of the problem to fill in gaps in knowledge, as well as develop epidemiological data for developing policies and prevention programs. The Nigeria Health Service has interest in taking advantage of this mandate so that the information generated through a youths' focused study could direct the design of evidenced-based prevention programs to address the problem  {\ref 13} .\par
Substance abuse is injurious to the students, it increases crime rates, enhances the spread of disease like AIDS, leads to loss of sanity, and death. Some students are involved in the use of illicit substance(s) because they want to reduce the peer pressure around them. Substance abuse among students in Nigeria in the contemporary time has become one issue that cast a gloomy shadow to the entire Nigerian society especially among students. Substance abuse and chemical dependency among young people has been a social problem and continues to be one of the most significant medical, social and economic problems facing mankind \hyperref[b20]{22} . The prevalence of alcohol use on college campuses is classified as a "Major public health concern" \hyperref[b18]{20} . The height of drug trafficking in Nigeria was witnessed in 1985 under the military regime. During this period, it was mostly the undergraduates that were caught and the first to be executed for drug offences under the "special tribunal (Miscellaneous Offences) Degree No. 20 of 1984. However, the abuse of substance is not only limited to the students as alien phenomenon is to distort its significance.\par
Nevertheless, the usage of substance either by students or other members of the larger society in all its ramifications appears to be a social problem. This problem is widely spread and it affect all and sundry. In other words, this wide spread use and abuse entice people from all walks of life and beyond the human destruction caused by drug dependence is the damage to traditional values and lifestyles. Studies have also shown that drug abuse wrecks individual, shatter families and weakens entire society with its burden of economic loses, health cost and increased lawlessness and crime. Also, substance abuse seems to undermine the ability of students to learn. Substance abuse also appears to contradict our values of physical wellbeing. To add to this, drug abuse may entail a lot of social problems ranging from lateness to lectures, family neglect, deviance behaviours, involvement in crime  {\ref 16} . In terms of economic cost, it includes the more money required to deal with the undesirable effects of the drug abuse, the less money for services and programmes that enhances the quality of life  {\ref 13.} Addressing the problem of substance abuse among adolescents in the college setting is a very specialized need with unique issues that demand "high quality and effective treatment" approaches that may be different to those used with other substance abuse populations or adolescents in general. Tertiary institutions as training institutions are different from secondary or high schools in structure, freedom, accountability, expectations and rules. As described earlier, campus environment is an adult world, with doors open to teenagers.\par
High rates of alcohol use are also associated with risky sexual behaviour among students. In a Nigerian study it reported that over 97,000 students are victims of alcohol-related sexual assault or alcohol abuse while several others reported being too intoxicated to know whether or not they consented to having sex  {\ref 6} . The use and abuse of alcohol has implications on the health status of students in schools, for instance, it is the cause of many social and health problems, such as increase in crime rate and high proportion of accidental injury.\par
Many social, economic and political factors have contributed to the global spread of psychoactive substance. In the nineteenth century drugs tended to only be available where they were produced, or very close to the source of production. However, the growth of transportation, tourism and communications in the twentieth century has made it possible to transport goods and people quickly to any part of the world. Drugs too, are being transported to distant places. Given the economic rewards of producing and transporting drugs, it is not surprising that they are available almost all over the world. It has been estimated that the illegal market for drugs is worth \$100 to \$500 billion worldwide. These figures are of course more than estimates, but even at the lower level represent a substantial and lucrative market \hyperref[b6]{7} .\par
Global trends in drug production, transportation and consumption are difficult to describe and assess because of the complexities of the issues involved and the lack of accurate information on what are clandestine activities. Drugs are being produced in increasing numbers, making them more readily available through both legal and illicit channels. A drug culture life style with its own jargon support and maintains its members in their drug-seeking behaviour and helps to make the illicit market profitable. There has been a sizeable increase in the production and use of illicit drugs throughout the world. The United Nations International Drug Control Programmes estimate that the global production of coca leaf has more than doubled and that of opium poppies more than tripled since 1985  {\ref 13} . Moreover, new forms of existing drugs e.g. smoke able "crack" cocaine, changes in the modes of administering these drugs e.g. transitions from opium smoking to heroin injection in South East, Asia and one introduction and proliferation of now synthetic drugs e.g. amphetamine-type stimulants and so called designer drugs all create new or exacerbate existing substances related problems. Of particular importance is the fact that drug injection has become a major transmission route for HIV of scientific and public health efforts to address these new issues, significant advances in drug abuse epidemiological research methods have been achieved. These advances have included improved techniques to assess the extent of drug related behaviours and problems, but also the introduction and development of methods which aim to understand behaviour as much as measure them. Substance abuse is a major social and public health problem. The abuse of one drug-alcohol-currently is one of the major causes of death in the United Sates, ranking only behind coronary diseases and cancer. Substance abuse cost the American economy billions of dollars a year  {\ref 9} .\par
To this end and judging from the problems outlined earlier, this research aims at assessing the level of substance abuse among students of College of Health Science and Technology Ijero Ekiti State. 
\section[{c) Justification}]{c) Justification}\par
The importance of this study is to provide resource materials for many that want to have deeper knowledge about the cause, effect and control of drug abuse. This research work will encourage organizations like NAFDAC, NDLEA, health organizations like WHO. and government parastatals to establish drug rehabilitation center to help victims of drug abuse more so the significant of this study is to outline its health implication amongst students which will be centered on identifying the cause of drug abuse among student, reducing the hazard of drug abuse to a minimum level, reducing the incidence of rape among students, and also to alert the government on how to control the abuse of drug since the sort term and long term effect are disastrous.\par
Recent studies show that the rate of juvenile delinquencies in Nigeria has drastically increased due to the indiscriminate use of drug among youths of Nigeria. Crimes such as Armed robbery, rape, theft, political thuggery, homeless children, drop out, killings e.t.c.  {\ref 6} While the use of tobacco by the general population has decreased over the last several decades, students' use of tobacco remains widespread  {\ref 9} . The menace of drug use is not limited to Nigeria. The World Drug Report (2005) states that five percent of the world's population, aged 15-64, had abused drugs at least once in 2003. Some crimes committed under the influence of substances include murder, rape, robbery, homicide, destruction of lives and properties, violation of traffic regulations leading to accidents, affecting the user and or the people of the society in general.\par
The problem of drug abuse among youths in Nigeria has a unique slant because Nigerian tertiary institutions admit students who are still in midadolescence. The minimum age of entry into Nigerian institution is 16 years \hyperref[b27]{33} , which lowers the average age of students in tertiary institutions. Misconduct either appears or escalates in adolescence. Rates of substance use are higher in adolescence than during childhood \hyperref[b20]{22} . This is possibly due to the fact that in the second decade of life, young people encounter a rapidly widening world of opportunity, accompanied by rapid changes in all areas of their lives.\par
This rapid growth or change occurs in various areas such as physical changes (development of secondary sexual characteristics of pubic hair, weight gain, deepening of the voice, fullness of the breast, etc), cognitive development (the movement from concrete to abstract thought processes.), and psychosocial development (identity formation and accompanying dilemmas in the struggle for independence on the way to adulthood). The widening world and rapid changes expose adolescents to serious risks before they have adequate information, skills and experience to avoid or counteract them \hyperref[b17]{19} . One of such risks is the exposure to substance abuse which becomes one of the factors that influences the development of the burden of disease. The World Health Organization (WHO) also reported that Year 2016Global Journal of Medical Research Volume XVI Issue IV Version I ( D D D D ) B\par
one third of the disease burdens of adults can be associated with behaviors' that began in adolescence. It is on this background that researchers set out to establish prevalence of substance abuse among students in tertiary Schools. This particular research work will attempt to assess the level of substance abuse, and the research findings may contribute towards providing information assessing the level of substance abuse among youths. The problem of drug abuse being of public health importance needs to be effectively and efficiently control, to greatly reduce the menace and consequences such as crimes and cultism. College of Health Science and Technology is highly cosmopolitan with students admitted from all over Nigeria. It has been in one forefront in the training of high and middle level manpower for the health sector of the nation's economy, therefore the project will have a great impact on many youths and the nation in general 2 . 
\section[{d) Objective of the Study i. Main Objectives}]{d) Objective of the Study i. Main Objectives}\par
The main objective of this study is to assess the level of substance abuse among the students of College of Health Sciences and Technology.\par
ii. Specific Objectives 1) To assess the knowledge and source of substance abuse. 2) To determine the substance commonly abused among students. 3) To determine the level of substance abuse. 4) To assess the consequences of substance abuse among students. 
\section[{e) Scope of the Study}]{e) Scope of the Study}\par
The study was conducted among students of College of Health Science and Technology in Ijero Ekiti 
\section[{f) Significance of the Study}]{f) Significance of the Study}\par
The need to assess the level of substance abuse among College of health student in Ijero Ekiti is to;\par
1. Know the level of dependency, tolerance, and addiction of abused substance. 2. Highlight the risk and consequences of substance abuse. 3. The data collected will help to know the frequency or level of substance abuse among students. 
\section[{To help reduce the hazard of drug abuse among students}]{To help reduce the hazard of drug abuse among students}\par
This study will provide resource materials for many that want to have deeper knowledge about the causes, risk, consequences and level of substance abuse among students. 
\section[{Chapter Two II. Literature Review a) Overview of Substance Abuse}]{Chapter Two II. Literature Review a) Overview of Substance Abuse}\par
Drugs are generally defined as substances other than food, which are taken to change the way the body or the mind functions. These drugs could come from plants growing wild in the fields or they could be manufactured in the laboratory. They could also be categorized into legal, illegal, or harmful. These drugs are considered abused when the user deliberately uses it for non-medical purposes, as well as the arbitrary use without Medical prescription.\par
Drug or substance abuse comes in various shades. This involves taking too much of a drug at one time or small doses at shorter intervals. Taking a drug at regular intervals but far beyond the duration given or taking it for a wrong reason is also abuse. A drug again can be abused if it is taken in combinations with other drugs knowingly or unknowingly.\par
More often users move from one drug to another and use combinations of different substances. Some of these combinations could be so dangerous to cause sudden death. Drug refers to a substance that could bring about a change in the biological function through its chemical actions \hyperref[b6]{7} . It is also considered as a substance that modifies perceptions, cognition, mood, behavior and general body functions \hyperref[b4]{5} . This could thus be considered as chemical modifiers of the living tissues that could bring about psychological and behavioral changes \hyperref[b4]{5} .\par
Drug abuse is a major public health problem all over the world  {\ref 9} . The use and abuse of drugs by adolescents have become one of the most disturbing health related phenomena in Nigeria and other parts of the world. Several school going adolescents experience mental health problem, either temporarily or for a long period of time. Some become insane, maladjusted to school situations and eventually drop out of school  {\ref 9} . The term drug abuse was defined as excessive and persistent self-administration of a drug without regard to the medically or culturally accepted patterns \hyperref[b3]{4} .\par
It could also be viewed as the use of a drug to the extent that it interferes with the health and social function of an individual. Drug abusers who exhibit symptoms of stress, anxiety, depression, behavior changes, fatigue and loss or increase in appetite should be treated by medical experts and counselors to save them from deadly diseases \hyperref[b9]{10} .\par
The alarming evidence in the prevalence of drug abuse, the effects and consequences of substance abuse among students has called for concern and challenge to all helping professions to mount strategies of equipping youths with skills of living devoid of substance abuse.\par
In Nigeria today, the consequences of substance use are diverse, including acute and chronic health, social as well as psychological problem. There is disruption of interpersonal relationships particularly within the family, marginalization, criminal behaviour, school failure, vocational problems and failure to achieve normal adolescent milestones, yet these adolescents are expected to be the leaders of the country in the future when they do not even have any focus for the future. Several studies carried out among the secondary school students in Benin City found out that students and youth of easy virtue in the community are involved in cannabis abuse and stimulants such as amphetamines and cannabis  {\ref 13} . The consensus of opinion therefore seems to be that youths are also seriously involved in substance abuse.\par
Drug abuse has become such a problem of great concern to all well-meaning Nigerian and particularly the Federal Government to the extent that an Agency has been established to combat the social disease with a view to reducing the spread of drug abuse to the barest minimum or eradicating it totally.\par
People abuse drugs for various reasons. These may range from curiosity, availability and previous drug use to emotional and social pressures. Drug use and abuse as a habit unfortunately could begin quite early in life as part of culture in some societies. The common drugs that are abused and which have attracted both local and international concern include tobacco, marijuana, heroin, cocaine, valium and ecstasy. According to World Health Report (1995), levels of use of marijuana and other illicit substances among the young people in the USA since 1992 have increased for the first in over ten years. Lifetime use of any illicit drug among 18 year olds in school peaked in 1981 at 66\%. It again states that drug injecting is increasingly becoming common. Often, injecting implies sharing needles with its resultant risk of HIV infection, hepatitis among other infections. A crude estimate of mortality worldwide due to drug injecting is between 160,000 and 210,000 per year \hyperref[b3]{4} .\par
Volatile solvents and inhalants are presently common among younger and marginalized people in developing and developed countries.\par
Internationally, there have been several meetings to deliberate on the menace of drug abuse. For example in 1990, Mr. Perez de Cueller, at the special session of the United Nations indicated that drug abuse is a time-bomb ticking away in the heart of civilization and there was the need to quickly find measures to deal with it before it explodes and destroys. In a similar meeting in 1998, Ghana's Mr. Kofi Annan, United Nations Secretary-General, also stated that "the proliferation of drugs over the past 30 years is an example of the previously unimaginable, becoming reality very quickly and a tragic reality that historians will record as the time when the international community has found a common ground in a mission to increase momentum towards a drug free world in the 21st century".\par
Nigeria has over the years made positive strides in curbing the drug menace among its populace. Efforts have included the development of policies against drug trafficking through national and internal ports of entry, confiscation of property of drug traffickers, banning of cigarette advertising on television, banning of smoking in public places, institution of annual drug awareness campaigns in collaboration with international partners such as WHO and the inscription of the surgeons warning on the danger of smoking on each cigarette packet.\par
A number of studies have been carried out in Nigeria and other parts of Africa to look at the prevalence of selected drugs such as tobacco among the youth. In a study by WHO, results indicated that, out of a total of100respondents, 14\% had ever smoked cigarette, 19\% currently use a form of tobacco. It was reported that 15.1\% of respondents had been offered free cigarettes by tobacco company representatives before. About 55.9\% had been taught in class in the past year about dangers of smoking.\par
In another study by same author on tobacco involving 510 tertiary institutions students in 6 schools, 65 (13\%) had ever smoked cigarettes. Of these 13\%, 15(23\%) started at the age of 16. 26\% of the total sample were aware that smoking caused harm to the lungs. This habit is as a result of peer pressure, parental smoking and advertising.\par
Due to paucity of information on the drug problem and limited resources, few studies if any have been able to investigate the prevalence of abuse over a wide range of commonly abused substances within the Nigerian setting.\par
Substance abuse is a social problem that has spread and increased rapidly in our educational institutions especially among our secondary school students. In Nigeria, this social mal adaptation is considered an issue of serious concern as it adversely affects the lives and performance of students involved as well as the harmonious functioning of the entire structure of the society. Drug abuse and other associated problems are inimical to the survival and effective functioning of human societies. A significant number of untimely deaths and accidents have been ascribed to the activities of persons under the influence of one drug or the other.\par
Substance abuse is the use of mood modifying substances illegally, excessively and in a socially unacceptable manner  {\ref 13} . The drugs range from those that should not even be taken without medical prescription such as cocaine, amphetamine, heroin, marijuana, to the socially acceptable beverages such as whisky, local gin, beer and other alcoholic drinks. It was viewed that substance abuse is the improper use or application of drugs by a person without proper knowledge of the drugs and without due prescription from a qualified medical practitioner \hyperref[b14]{15} . 
\section[{b) Theories of Substance Abuse}]{b) Theories of Substance Abuse}\par
Theories of drug abuse indicate that some people truly depend on certain drugs for their survival due to a number of factors. The major emphasis of the theories is that people have their individual reasons for depending on one type of the drug or the other. Such reasons are explained by the following theories. Personality theory of drug abuse, learning theory of drug abuse, biological theory of drug abuse and sociocultural theories  {\ref 15.} Personality Theories of Drug Abuse: The main emphasis of the theories are that there are certain traits or characteristics in the individuals that abuse drugs. Such personality characteristics, are inability to delay gratification, low tolerance for frustration, poor impulse control, high emotional dependence on other people, poor coping ability and low self-esteem. Individuals with these personality characteristics find it difficult to abstain from drug abuse. Learning Theory of Drug Abuse: It maintains that dependence or abuse of drugs occurs as a result of learning. The learning could be by means of conditioning, instrumental learning or social learning. Biological Theory of Drug Abuse: The theory maintains that drug abuse is determined by the individual's biological or genetic factors which make them vulnerable to drug addiction Socio-cultural Theories of Drug Dependence/Abuse: The theories maintain that abuse is determined by sociocultural values of the people. For instance, while certain cultures permit the consumption of alcohol and marijuana, other cultures do not. Among the Urhobo, Ijaw, Ibibio, Edo, Igbo, Yoruba and Itesekiri, alcohol i.e. Ogogoro is used in cultural activities. In Northern Nigeria, alcohol is forbidden due to Sharia law.\par
However, the sharia law does not forbid cigarette consumption and thus nicotine dependence. It should be noted, however that no theory fully explains the etiology of drug abuse. This is due to individual differences. It then becomes obvious that the disorder (drug abuse) is an acquired one. The acquisition then is dependent on a host of personal inclinations and environmental factors, social cognitive theory, i.e the triadic reciprocity involving behavior, environment and the person.This definition focuses on psychoactive drugs; all drugs can be abused to an extent that it turns into addition when the drug user is unable to stop the use of drugs despite the harmful effects on the user's social, personal and economic lives.\par
The problem of substance abuse is so grave that though it was originally conceived as the problem of a 'select few', it has extended beyond the usual characteristics of abusers being male, adult and urban based people to now include female, youngsters and rural dwellers. These abusers erroneously believe that drugs enhance their performance, put them in good mood, the accompany problems of this act constitute a major threat to the well-being of the society \hyperref[b20]{22} .\par
The youths in Nigeria like many countries of the world are developing addiction to psychoactive substances. In 1992, the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) collected drugs use and abuse data from schools, records of patients admitted at mental health institutions for drug problems and interview of persons arrested for drug offences. The result showed that youths constitute the high risk group for drug trafficking and abuse. Friends and school mates account for about 90\% of the source of influence of the use and abuse of various psychoactive substances. In Nigeria, alcohol and cigarette are legal substances but, the two have been discovered to cause physical damage to human bodies. These substances have also said to be "gateway drugs" to other more potent drugs like heroin and cocaine  {\ref 6} . In Nigeria, it has been reported that smoking (tobacco) causes 90.0\% of lung cancer, 30.0\% of all cancers, and 80.0\% of other chronic lung diseases \hyperref[b16]{17} . There is a strong need for such a study to be carried out among in school and out of school youth to determine the prevalence and social conseque nces of substance abuse among them. 
\section[{c) Sources of Substance(S) Commonly Abused Among}]{c) Sources of Substance(S) Commonly Abused Among}\par
Students A Nationwide survey on drug use among students found that the large majority of pupils (85.6\%) considered themselves to be sufficiently informed about drugs, their effects and the problems associated with their use (Morales et al, 2008). The main channels through which young people received drug use information were their parents and siblings (73.2\%), the media (69.3\%) and teachers (63.8\%). Nowadays there is a considerable increase in number of student gaining drug information and knowledge via their families and teachers. In this regard, students will have received sufficient drug information by the time they leave secondary school \hyperref[b17]{19} . In 2003, 60\% of school pupils received information on drug use in the context of health educational classes; this figure had reached 100\% by 2008. It is therefore prudent that school become the resource and center where drug information is accessed.\par
The factors associated with drug abuse are many and varied, and include individual predispositions, family characteristics and complex social and environmental determinants.\par
A number of authors and researchers have shown that there are many contributing factors to drug abuse among students. It was stated that in a school setting, drug abuse affects the children of the rich as well as those from poor families \hyperref[b18]{20} .\par
Drug abuse is caused by a combination of environmental, biological, and psychological factors. Under environmental factors; the most influential elements include the family, peer association, school performance and social class membership.\par
According to the United Nations (1992), drug users, like approval for their behavior from their peers and using is a symbolic to the group. Whether peer pressure has a positive or negative impact depends on the quality of the peer group. Unfortunately, the same peer pressure that acts to keep a group within an accepted code of behavior can also push a susceptible individual down the wrong path.\par
A study carried out in Nairobi secondary schools indicated that the majority of drug users had friends who used drugs  {\ref 16} . Studies on the issue of drug use and abuse agrees that there is a significant relationship between the subjects" drug using behavior and the involvement of their friends in drugs \hyperref[b14]{15} . According to the study, if an adolescent associates with other adolescents who use drugs, the risk of involvement with drugs is further increased. Another survey of youths in southern Nigeria, also found out that the source of drugs for drug using-students was friends in the same or neighboring schools, and students who reported using drugs had more drug using friends than abstinent friends \hyperref[b6]{7} . Confirming this finding, it was argued that peer pressure influences youth to use substances under the false impression that some drugs stimulate appetite for food, increase strength and give wisdom as well as courage to face life  {\ref 16} .\par
Although it is presumed that there are similarities in the prevalence of psychoactive substance use, authors has asserted that there are various factors that cause young people to abuse drugs and even become addicted. These include family networks, interaction and home environments  {\ref 18} .\par
It was reported that adolescents with substance abusing parents experience a higher rate of parental and or family problems than do adolescents whose parents do not abuse substances. This may cause poor parent-child attachment, which may in turn lead to a lack of commitment to conventional activities, thereby at times leading to adolescent drug taking \hyperref[b13]{14} . It was added that youths with poor home support tend to seek support and understanding elsewhere. Many find affection, understanding and support in the lifestyle of a drug abusing subgroup \hyperref[b18]{20} .\par
It was added that interactions within the family unit will play a major role in the adolescent's personality or self-concept formation. In addition, the exposure to cultural norms through the family, as well as individual adaptations, lays the foundation for influential modelling and acceptance of social orientations. The family is often viewed as the basic source of strength, nurturing and supporting its members, as well as ensuring stability and generational continuity for the community and its culture \hyperref[b14]{15} . 
\section[{d) Causes of Substance Abuse among Students}]{d) Causes of Substance Abuse among Students}\par
The followings are the main causes' 1. Experimental Curiosity: Curiosity to experiment the unknown facts about drugs thus motivates adolescents into drug use. The first experience in drug abuse produces a state of arousal such as happiness and pleasure which in turn motivate them to continue.\par
2. Peer Group Influence: Peer pressure plays a major role in influencing many adolescents into drug abuse. This is because peer pressure is a fact of teenage and youth life. As they try to depend less on parents, they show more dependency on their friends. In Nigeria, as other parts of the world, one may not enjoy the company of others unless he conforms to their norms. 
\section[{Lack of parental supervision:}]{Lack of parental supervision:}\par
Many parents have no time to supervise their sons and daughters. Some parents have little or no interaction with family members, while others put pressure on their children to pass exams or perform better in their studies. These phenomena initialize and increases drug abuse. 
\section[{Personality Problems due to socio-Economic}]{Personality Problems due to socio-Economic}\par
Conditions: Adolescents with personality problems arising from social conditions have been found to abuse drugs. The social and economic status of most Nigerians is below average. Poverty is widespread, broken homes and unemployment is on the increase, therefore our youths roam the streets looking for employment or resort to begging. These situations have been aggravated by lack of skills, opportunities for training and re-training and lack of committed action to promote job creation by private and community entrepreneurs. Frustration arising from these problems lead to recourse in drug abuse for temporarily removing the tension and problems arising from it. 
\section[{The Need for Energy to Work for Long Hours:}]{The Need for Energy to Work for Long Hours:}\par
The increasing economic deterioration that leads to poverty and disempowerment of the people has driven many parents to send their children out in search of a means of earning something for contribution to family income. These children engage in hawking, bus conducting, head loading, scavenging, serving in food canteens etc and are prone to drug taking so as to gain more energy to work for long hours.  \hyperref[b19]{21} . Drugs are abused for various reasons: It was confirmed that search for pleasure motivates drug abusers to alter their state of consciousness. The studies confirmed that people abuse drugs for the enhancement of good feelings and used it as a means of coping with stress of life \hyperref[b16]{17} . Advanced reasons for substance abuse in Nigeria: Intraindividual reasons, Sex, Physical or mental illness, Personality make up, Extra individual reasons, Dependence producing nature of the drugs and Availability 18 .\par
Intra-individual reasons pertained to the individuals and these include age, sex, physical and mental illness. Studies have shown that young people especially adolescents and young adults are most prone to drug abuse.\par
A survey carried out by National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) revealed that they abuse drugs as early as age eleven (for prescribed drugs) and age 16 (for narcotic drugs). The reasons advanced by these students are: to feel on top like adults, to feel good, to get excited, to be like friends and to be like stars. Drug abuse is sex based, more males than females abused drugs \hyperref[b17]{19} . However it was stated that there are as many males as there are females who abuse drugs. Individuals with physical or mental illness are more likely to use drug than those without such illness. These individuals are more pre-disposed to over use of or over dependence on drugs to control and treat such ailments  {\ref 24} . The use of these drugs outside medical prescription constitutes drug abuse.\par
Individuals differ in their makeup and in the way they respond to situations and events in their environment. The ability to tolerate or yield to stress, frustrations, pain and discomfort determines whether an individual will become a drug abuser or not. It could be inferred that drug abusers are usually weak and unable to cope with stress, pain or discomfort. Thus, drugs foster a sense of relaxation and sedation which help abusers to escape the reality of environmental stress, such as urbanization, the pressure to get ahead in school and business, unfair distribution of income, poverty and family problems.\par
There are external reasons that act on the individuals. Drug abusers usually described such factors as those of peer pressure, the urge to be curious and wish to experiment, unemployment, idleness, unstable family conditions, for example, death, separation, boredom, poverty, affluence and the bustles of city life.\par
Extra individual reasons include the need to get rich quickly (drug trafficking), to enhance performance (especially among the athletes and artists) and drug use in the family (NDLEA, 1991).\par
Dependence producing natures of the drugs are reasons which have to do with the drugs. A drug continually used for a period produces dependence, thus making it difficult for the user to quit the tranquil sedatives and analgesics are the most common dependence producing drugs.\par
Drugs that are readily available such as alcohol and tobacco can be easily abused. In 1991, more than 12\% of the students in Lagos State indicated that it was easy to get illegal drugs like cannabis, heroine, and cocaine. About forty percent (40\%), indicated that these drugs could be gotten, though with a little difficulty (NDLEA, 1991). Researchers have clearly shown that all the reasons stated above curiosity and experimentation are the most valid for young people \hyperref[b19]{21} . 
\section[{e) Signs and Symptoms of Substance Abuse}]{e) Signs and Symptoms of Substance Abuse}\par
According to Adolescents Health Information Project AHIP (2001)   
\section[{f) Types of Substance Commonly Abused}]{f) Types of Substance Commonly Abused}\par
In Nigeria, the most common types of abused drugs according to NAFDAC (2000) are categorized as follows:-1. Stimulants: These are substances that directly act and stimulate the central nervous system. Users at the initial stage experience pleasant effects such as energy increase. The major source of these comes from caffeine substance. 2. Hallucinogens': These are drugs that alter the sensory processing unit in the brain. Thus, producing distorted perception, feeling of anxiety and euphoria, sadness and inner joy, they normally come from marijuana, LSD etc. 3. Narcotics: These drugs relive pains, induce sleeping and they are addictive. They are found in heroin, codeine, opium etc. 4. Sedatives: These drugs are among the most widely used and abused. This is largely due to the belief that they relieve stress and anxiety, and some of them induce sleep, ease tension, cause relaxation or help users to forget their problems. They are sourced from valium, alcohol, promethazine, chloroform. 5. Miscellaneous: This is a group of volatile solvents or inhalants that provide euphoria, emotional disinhibition and perpetual distortion of thought to the user. The main sources are glues, spot removers, tube repair, perfumes, chemicals etc. Means of administration include sniffing. For drugs such as amphetamines, opiates and hallucinogens, routes of administration described as smoking, dissolving in water for injection, sniffing, brewing into tea, absorbing into sugar cubes, swallowing and eating. Amphetamines specifically were mentioned as being smoked with tobacco. Psychoactive drugs are usually grouped into three: 1. Depressants 2. Stimulants 3. Hallucinogens Depressants include alcohol, barbiturates and heroin. Alcohol is perhaps the most used and abused drug in Nigeria \hyperref[b23]{25} . Alcohol is used to offer prayers in many cultural ceremonies (libation), used for naming new born babies and freely served in wedding occasions in Nigeria. Alcohol is a terrible downer, a sedative depressant of the Central Nervous System. It has been noted to increase violent behavior and a major cause of fatal accident. Heroin is a white powdered substance derived from opium and usually taken by injection. It is a powerful depressant that provides euphoria; the abusers claimed that it is so pleasurable that it can eradicate any thought of food or sex. Barbiturate and sedatives are sleeping pills. Like narcotics, barbiturates exert calming effects on the Central Nervous System.\par
Stimulants are drugs that excite and sustain activity while diminishing symptoms of fatigue, cigarette, caffeine, amphetamines and cocaine belong to this group. Cocaine is the best known stimulant; it is swallowed, sniffed or injected. Hallucinogens produce hallucinations. These are drugs that induce changes in perceptions, thoughts and feelings; they are usually called "consciousness expanders". The most common hallucinogens in Nigeria are marijuana, known as Indian hemp or "Igbo". It produces euphoria and heightens the enjoyment of food, music, sex, etc \hyperref[b20]{22} . 
\section[{g) Level of Substance Abuse}]{g) Level of Substance Abuse}\par
Within the last decade the consumption of substance abuse has drastically increased in Nigeria Hard substances such as alcohol, cannabis, amphetamines among others are now taken frequently and in large quantities by students. The National Drug Law Enforcement Agency can still raise the tempo of its effectiveness by investing heavily on technological device that can enhance its ability to detect drug traffickers or consumers to thwart and frustrate their effort. The annual retrieval of psychoactive substance by prescription is running over five billion gallons of alcohol beverages a year for which some 30\textunderscore -35million consumers are paying approximately four billion naira.\par
The level of substance abuse or extent can be classified under three stages: 1) The Experiment or Recreation Stage: This is the stage when an individual experiments with the drug at first i.e. the first trial of an individual. The outcome of this stage, determines if the user will continue taking the drugs, or change the drug, continue with the dose he started with he might also consider increasing or reducing the said dose. It is the time when an individual will begin to explore. 2) Addiction/Habitual Stage: At this stage, people use drugs to maintain the state of euphoria gotten from the drugs because they have come to like and accept the stage of euphoria they get from the drug. In this stage, the abuser becomes totally dependent on the drug and believes that he can't possibly do anything without the drug because it increases their morale and makes them "high". It can also be referred to as dependence stage it makes the abuser lose control of some situation as they won't be in their right sense without the drug. 3) Tolerance: This simply refers to how the abusers system tolerates the drugs. If the drug is well tolerated the abuser can then decide to increase the dose, the frequency at which he takes it. 
\section[{h) Consequences of Substance Abuse}]{h) Consequences of Substance Abuse}\par
Drug use by students has hampered education and management in Nigerian secondary schools. In Nigeria, recent statistics suggest that one in every three secondary school students consumes alcohol 1l . Another 8.3\% smoke cigarettes while almost one in every ten (9.1\%) chew Mira. About 3\% smoke bhang and use hard drugs like heroin, cocaine, madras and tranquilizers  {\ref 12} .\par
Drugs have varied physiological effects. Some adverse consequences include insomnia, prolonged loss of appetite, increased body temperature, greater risk of hepatitis and HIV/AIDS infection death, various forms of cancers, ulcers and brain damage \hyperref[b21]{23} . A study identified accelerated heartbeat, speeding in the peripheral circulation of the blood, alteration of blood pressure, breathing rate and other body functions as potential effects. Cannabis affects the hormonal and reproductive system and the regular use of cannabis can reduce male testosterone and sperm cells \hyperref[b21]{23} . Drug abuse contributes to the formation of uric acid which accelerates conditions like arthritis, gout, osteoporosis, and heart attacks, particularly those with pre-existing coronary hypertensive problems  {\ref 27} Drug abuse also affects the brain, resulting in a major decline in its functions. Drugs can affect a student's concentration and thus interest in school and extracurricular activities. This leads to increased absenteeism and drop outs. Most psychoactive drugs affect the decision making process of students, their creative thinking and the development of necessary life and social skills. Drugs also interfere with an individual's awareness of their unique potential and thus their interest in their career development \hyperref[b21]{23} .\par
Drug habits also affect an individual's selfconcept. Self-concept refers to the way an individual perceives himself or herself in a variety of areas for example academically, physically, and socially. Low self-esteem can lead to a detrimental redefinition of selfconcept and this in turn can lead the student to indulge in escapist behavior such as drug and substance abuse \hyperref[b19]{21} . A study found that when the students are feeling bad about themselves or are feeling unworthy, unloved or rejected, they turn to drugs. Students are affected more by these emotions and their inability to cope given their adolescent stage of development. During this stage, identity formation is important and self-concept plays a major role \hyperref[b19]{21} . Addiction can develop when students' insecurities combine with the influence of peers and the media. Drugs then become the social and emotional focus at the expense of other interests and activities. This gradually leads to social, emotional and physical problems and new feelings of guilt, despair and helplessness.\par
Therefore, the consequences will be considered in three spheres of life, which includes: Financial, social, and health aspect. 
\section[{1) Finiancial Aspect:}]{1) Finiancial Aspect:}\par
The person that is so much addicted to drug tends to spend more money on purchasing drugs like marijuana, tobacco, alcohol, cigarettes, heroine, cocaine e.t.c. This can make the abuser to become bankrupt or start searching for money by all means. For students, they can be forced to spend money that should be used for academic purpose to purchase drugs which might force them to take up odd jobs, make them financially handicapped which can force them to steal. The money used for rehabilitation of victims of substance abuse is also exorbitant.  \hyperref[b19]{21} . Statistical analysis carried out by WHO, about smoking however shows that: a. Each stick of cigarette a man smoke decreases his life span by eleven minutes b. Thick smoke in industrial centers can trigger heart attack in two hours. 3) Social Aspect: Drug habits also affect an individual's self-concept. Self-concept refers to the way an individual perceives himself or herself in a variety of areas for example academically, physically, and socially \hyperref[b21]{23} . Low self-esteem can lead to a detrimental redefinition of self-concept and this in turn can lead the student to indulge in escapist behavior such as drug and substance abuse. A study \hyperref[b17]{19} found that when the students are feeling bad about themselves or are feeling unworthy, unloved or rejected, they turn to drugs. Students are affected more by these emotions and their inability to cope given their adolescent stage of development. During this stage, identity formation is important and self-concept plays a major role. Addiction can develop when students' insecurities combine with the influence of peers and the media. Drugs then become the social and emotional focus at the expense of other interests and activities. This gradually leads to social, emotional and physical problems and new feelings of guilt, despair and helplessness. Drug abuse also affects the brain, resulting in a major decline in its functions. Drugs like tetrahydrocarbinol (THC), cannabis, alcohol, etc. can affect a student's concentration and thus interest in school and extracurricular activities. This leads to increased absenteeism and drop outs. Most psychoactive drugs affect the decision making process of students, their creative thinking and the development of necessary life and social skills.\par
Drugs also interfere with an individual's awareness of their unique potential and thus their interest in their career development \hyperref[b17]{19}  The Ijero local government has a largely agrarian population producing cash crops such as cocoa, kola nuts, coffee, kola, cashew, and timber. The town also produces food crops such as yam, cocoyam, cassava, pepper, tomatoes and bananas, all produced in large quantities with good qualities. The town is also the seat of mineral resources such as tourmaline, colombalt, vesper, and crystal stone.\par
The College of Health Science and Technology Ijero Ekiti is a state owned tertiary institution which was established as School of Health Technology in 1997 following the creation of Ekiti State in October 1996. The state government believed that there was need to increase the strength of middle-level health personnel in order to supplement the existing manpower in Ekiti state.\par
Academic programs commenced formally in January 1999 with two courses. Moreover the long awaited Bill for the establishment of the college was assented to on the 21 st of January, 2011. It was a profound experience in the annals of history of the institution that its status by this development, metamorphosed from school to College 31 . 
\section[{b) Advocacy/Community Penetration}]{b) Advocacy/Community Penetration}\par
Introduction letter was obtained from Pharmacy Technician Department, College of Health Science and Technology, Ijero Ekiti. The letter was taken to the Authorities of College of Health Science and Technology, Ijero Ekiti seeking their permission to carry out the research among the students' in the college premises. 
\section[{c) Study Population}]{c) Study Population}\par
The study population included all students of College of Health Science and Technology, Ijero Ekiti, whom by the virtue of their provisional admission letter, are students of the College. 
\section[{d) Inclusion Criteria}]{d) Inclusion Criteria}\par
All the students of the College who agree to participate in the study were eligible for inclusion in the study. 
\section[{e) Exclusion Criteria}]{e) Exclusion Criteria}\par
All students of the College who are not willing to participate in the study were excluded. Students not physically present, or visitors during the data collection process were also excluded. 
\section[{f) Study Consent}]{f) Study Consent}\par
Verbal consent was obtained from the respondents after detailed explanation of the objectives, scope, and benefits of the study had been made known to them. 
\section[{g) Study Design}]{g) Study Design}\par
A descriptive cross-sectional study design was used for the study. 
\section[{h) Sample Size Determination}]{h) Sample Size Determination}\par
The fisher formula for sample size determination was used to calculate the sample size from the population of student in the college thus: n = z 2 pq and nf = d \hyperref[b1]{2} 1 +n /N n Where: n = desired sample size when total population is < 10,000. z = (standard normal deviation) = 1.96 i.e. 1.96 at 95\% confidence level. p = the knowledge of substance abuse is put at 0.83 (83\%)  {\ref 30} . q = 1.0 -p = 1.0 -0.83= 0.17 The minimum sampling required for the study was estimated at 202. However a total of 230 questionnaires were distributed. A total of 220 respondents successfully filled and returned their questionnaires. 
\section[{i) Sampling Technique}]{i) Sampling Technique}\par
Multistage sampling method was used in the selection of the participants for the study using selfadministered questionnaire.\par
First Stage: The first step was the selection of two-third of the twenty departments in the College of Health Science and Technology, Ijero Ekiti which is 13 departments by using simple random sampling by balloting. The selected 13  The second step is the proportional allocation of the sample size across the 13 selected departments within the college thus, Number of students in each level X Total number of students in the 13  Thus, 9 was used as sampling interval for 100 Level while 8 was used as sampling interval for both 200, and 300 Level of Dental Health Technician Department.\par
A semi structured self-administered questionnaire was used to collect quantitative data. Questions asked were specific, brief and polite. The questionnaire has four sections with section A relating to the sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents, section B deals with the knowledge that the respondents have about substance abuse together with the substance commonly abused among students, section C is about the level of substance abuse among students and section D concerns with the consequences of substance abuse among students. 
\section[{k) Data Processing and Analysis}]{k) Data Processing and Analysis}\par
The questionnaires were retrieved, sorted, cleared, checked properly and code entering using the computer. These were later analysed using the SPSS software package. Frequency distribution table and simple percentages were used to present the data. Cross tabulation of important variables was also done. The indices of measurement included the student's involvement in substance abuse.\par
Chi square test was used to determine the statistical significance of differences in variables observed and p-value was set at p < 0.050.  From table \hyperref[tab_14]{4}.1 above, the total number of respondents was 220. Most respondents 100(45.5\%) were between the age of 21 -25 years with the least being those that were 30 years and above, 15(6.8\%). Minimum age category was 16-20 while maximum age was 30 years and above. There were 91(41.4\%) respondents from 100 level, 78(35.4\%) from 200 level and 51(23.2\%) from 300 level. There were more male respondents 119(54.1\%) than the females101 (45.9\%). Out of the total 220 correspondents 156(70.9\%) were single, 54(24.6\%) were married and 10(4.5\%) accounts for divorced couple. 157(71.4\%) accounts for respondents of polygamous family background while 63(28.6\%) accounts for those of monogamous family background. 60(27.3\%) live with their parents while 86(39.1\%) live with their friends and 74(33.6\%) live alone.\par
Section B: Knowledge of Substance Abuse Table \hyperref[tab_14]{4}.3 shows that 97(64.7\%) adapted to this drugs in a number of days while 30(20.0\%) took weeks to adapt to the drug and about 23(15.3\%) took months to adapt to the drug. The most frequent route of administration was orally which accounts for 90(60.0\%), then parenteral route which accounts for 45(30.0\%) then inhalation 15(10.0\%). Frequency of consumption figured out to be 117(78.0\%) daily, Hourly 23(15.3\%), and weekly 10(6.7\%).\par
Section D: Effects of Substance Abuse Table \hyperref[tab_14]{4}.4: Shows the Consequences of Substance Abuse Out of 220 respondents, 60(27.3\%) were rated fair in their academic performance, 40(18.2\%) were rated average, and 60(27.3\%) are rated good in their academic performance while 30(13.6\%) are rated very good, a total of 30(13.6\%) were rated excellence on their academic performance. Result shows that 23(15.3\%) got money to source for the drug from school fees, 47(36.4\%) through friends while 80(40.9\%) got money through odd jobs.\par
The analysis shows that 120(80\%) did not experience any progression in their academic performance, and 30(20\%) did experience progression in their academics. It was revealed that 92(61.3\%) were affected financially while 58(38.7\%) were not. Findings also shows that 95(63.3\%) have been advised to cut down the intake of any substance they might be consuming and 55(36.7\%) have not received such advice.\par
The table further reveals that 57(60\%) have been advised to abstain totally from substances while 38(40\%) have been advised to reduce the intake to its minimal level. Section E: Cross Tabulation. Table \hyperref[tab_14]{4}.5 shows that more males were involved were involved in substance abuse than their female counterparts. The difference was however statistically significant as its p-value of 0.000 is less than the 0.050 alpha level of significance.  Table \hyperref[tab_14]{4}.7 shows that respondent with marital status of single are more involved in substance abuse than respondents from other categories, this finding is however statistically significant because its p-value of 0.000 is less than the 0.050 alpha level of significance  Table \hyperref[tab_14]{4}.9 shows that respondents from polygamous family are more involved in substance abuse than respondents monogamous family, this finding is not statistically significant because its p-value of 0.975 is greater than the 0.050 alpha level of significance.  \hyperref[tab_14]{4}.10 shows that respondent in 300 level have the knowledge of substance abuse more than respondents from other departmental levels, this finding is not statistically significant because its p-value of 0.200 is greater than the 0.050 alpha level of significance Table 4.11: Cross Tabulation between who they presently live with and their level of substance abuse (frequency of consumption) Table \hyperref[tab_14]{4}.11 shows that respondents that live alone has a higher frequency of consumption than respondents from other categories, this finding is however statistically significant because its p-value of 0.000 is less than the 0.050 alpha level of significance Chapter Five 
\section[{Global}]{Global} 
\section[{V. Discussion}]{V. Discussion}\par
For the assessment of substance abuse among the students of College of Health Sciences and Technology Ijero Ekiti, 230 questionnaires were distributed among the students of the 13 selected departments; however, a total of 220(95.65\%) questionnaires were retrieved.\par
The total number of respondents was 220. Most respondents 100(45.5\%) were between the age of 21 -25 years with the least being those that were 30 years and above 15(6.8\%). Minimum age category was 16-17 years while maximum age was above 30. There were 91(41.4\%) respondents from 100 level, 78(35.4\%) from 200 level and 51(23.2\%) from 300 level. There were more male respondents 119(54.1\%) than the females101 (45.9\%). Out of the total 220 correspondents 156(70.9\%) were single, 54(24.6\%) were married and 10(4.5\%) accounts for divorced couple. 157(71.4\%) accounts for respondents of polygamous family background while 63(28.6\%) accounts for those of monogamous family background. 60(27.3\%) live with their parents while 86(39.1\%) live with their friends and 74(33.6\%) live alone.\par
Further analysis of data shows that 25(10.9\%) student heard of substance abuse from hospital, while 20(8.7\%) heard from radio, 35(15.3\%) heard from television, 20(8.7\%) from poster, 58(25.4\%) from friends, 40(17.5\%) from school, 15(6.5\%) from seminar, while 15(6.5\%) heard from more than one source. Also, 15(10\%) are familiar with cigarette while 30(20\%) are familiar with opioids, 25(16.7\%) are familiar with amphetamines while 80(53.3\%) are familiar with alcohol. A total of 150(80\%) are involved in substance abuse while 70(20\%) aren't. Out of the 150 that are involved in substance abuse, 120(80\%) experiences increased efficiency while 30(20\%) claims not to experience.\par
Findings revealed that 97(64.7\%) adapted to this drugs in a number of days while 30(20.0\%) took weeks to adapt to the drug and about 23(15.3\%) took months to adapt to the drug. The most frequent route of administration was orally which accounts for 90(60.0\%), then parenteral route which accounts for 45(30.0\%) then inhalation 15(10.0\%). Frequency of consumption figured out to be 117(78.0\%) daily, Hourly 23(15.3\%), and weekly 10(6.7\%).\par
Out of 220 respondents, 60(27.3\%) were rated fair in their academic performance, 40(18.2\%) were rated average, and 60(27.3\%) are rated good in their academic performance while 30(13.6\%) are rated very good, a total of 30(13.6\%) were rated excellence on their academic performance. Result also shows that 23(15.3\%) got money to source for the drug from school fees, 47(36.4\%) through friends while 80(40.9\%) got money through odd jobs. Out of the 150 respondents that are involved in substance abuse, 120(80\%) did not experience any progression in their academic performance, and 30(20\%) experience progression in their academics. It was revealed that 92(61.3\%) were affected financially while 58(38.7\%) were not. Findings also shows that 95(63.3\%) have been advised to cut down the intake of any substance they might be consuming and 55(36.7\%) have not received such advice, 57(60\%) have been advised to abstain totally from substances while 38(40\%) have been advised to reduce the intake to its minimal level.\par
Further analysis shows that out of the 150 respondents that are involved in substance abuse more males were involved in substance abuse than their female counterparts, reason being that they believe that, the males abuse substance for effective performance in various spheres of life (sex which can induce the use of substance such as aphrodisiac , effectiveness in work such as hard labour which can also induce the abuse of tramadol, and to increase academic performance by taking substance such as nescafe which contains high proportion of caffeine for night classes. The difference was however statistically significant as its p-value of 0.000 is less than the 0.050 alpha level of significance.\par
Respondent between the age of 21 -25 are more involved in substance abuse than respondents from other age group, this finding is not statistically significant because its p-value of 0.100 is greater than the 0.050 alpha level of significance.\par
Respondent with marital status of single are more involved in substance abuse than respondents from other categories, this is because those that are single are with little or no responsibility, this finding is however statistically significant because its p-value of 0.000 is less than the 0.050 alpha level of significance.\par
Respondents from 100 level are more involved in substance abuse than respondents from other level, this is because the freshers are new to the school environment and they want to try out every experience and it is also due to misconception, the table revealed that the observation is statistically significant because its p-value of 0.025 is less than the 0.050 alpha level of significance.\par
Respondents from polygamous family are more involved in substance abuse than respondents monogamous family, this means that the family background of the respondent has a great impact on the involvement of respondents in substance abuse, this finding is not statistically significant because its p-value of 0.975 is greater than the 0.050 alpha level of significance.\par
Respondent in 300 level have the knowledge of substance abuse more than respondents from other levels, this is because their level of perception of substance abuse is high, this finding is not statistically significant because its p-value of 0.200 is greater than the 0.050 alpha level of significance. 
\section[{Chapter Six VI. Conclusion}]{Chapter Six VI. Conclusion}\par
Drug abuse is a problem that is of a great concern to the society and the government at large. The problem is prevalent among youth who in most cases are ignorant about the dangers inherent in drug abuse. Many of them are involved in drug abuse due to lack of parental supervision, frustration. Peer pressure, poverty, pleasure etc. which can lead to juvenile delinquencies However, with effective counselling program this problem can be curbed and tracked. Based on the findings previously reported in this study, the following conclusions were drawn. * The use of alcohol is the most common dangerous substance (drug) abuse. * Peer group are the major people who influence the use of substance (drug). * Substance abuse is a problem among the students of college of health sciences and technology ijero-Ekiti * People take substance (drug) for a number of reasons: to treat body ailment, to prolong wakefulness, for relaxation, to avoid emotional trauma, to forget about their problem, to satisfy curiosity, to cope with peer pressure among others. 
\section[{a) Recommendations}]{a) Recommendations}\par
We have by now analysed the major findings of the survey, and interpreted the quantitative data with the help of qualitative data collected from focus group sessions (students of college of health sciences and technology). In so doing, we have already fulfilled the objectives of the study which are 1) To determine the knowledge of substance abuse among students of college of health sciences and technology 2) To determine the substances common abused among students of college of health sciences and technology 3) To determine level of substance abuse among students of the college 4) To determine consequences of substance abuse Our final task is to make some broad recommendations, on the basis of findings of the study, for possible improvement of existing programs in rehabilitation and related services for students involved in substance abuse.\par
In view of the highlights of this study, the following recommendations are suggested to curb, reduce, or control drug abuse among youth.\par
? Designing curricula on drug education; ministry of education at all level (Local, State, and federal) should as a matter of urgency add d curricula of drug education to all level of education ? Educative posters and advertisements on every media platform to constantly remind people on the negative effects of drug abuse ? Establishment of counselling centres on drug abuse ? Establishment of rehabilitation centres to cater for those that have been affected ? Drug law enforcement agencies should wake up to their responsibility so as to control drug trafficking ? These agencies should be strengthened to punish drug users ? Drug abuse should be rated as an offence punishable by law. ? Voluntary organization and service clubs must be encourage in the society to render useful service where necessary, so as to divert people mind from evil practice and bad peer group It is further recommended that law enforcement agencies (NAFDAC, NDLEA, e. Respondents that live alone has a higher frequency of consumption than respondents from other categories, because they free to do whatever they want without any interruption, this finding is however statistically significant because its p-value of 0.000 is less than the 0.050 alpha level of significance.\par
Further Recommendations Includes: ? Raising Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy is the individual's perceived ability to resist the temptation to re-use a drug even in a highrisk situation, such as sighting of the drug.\par
The prominence of self-efficacy in affecting the length of abstinence of chronic drug abusers sends the strong signal that strengthening the self-efficacy of students would be one of the most effective means to improve rehabilitation programs and services. It is advised that most programs attach importance to developing self-efficacy in their clients (students). We suggest that programs of different modalities can review the elements in their programs that aim to improve selfefficacy, and review their effectiveness. Whatever the new strategies that may be introduced into programs, they must teach the students to assess their actual level of self-efficacy, so that they would not mistakenly put themselves at risk by over-estimating their ability to "stay firm" in a situation beyond their self-efficacy can handle. 
\section[{? Building Social Network in Treated Addicts}]{? Building Social Network in Treated Addicts}\par
Association with drug-using friends and support from non-drug-using friends significantly influence the students' performance in the intervals of the study. Both involve the re-establishment of social relations after leaving the treatment setting. Social relations can generate resources that can be used to facilitate social goals. Re-entering a network of drug-using friends would generate negative social capital, thereby undermining self-efficacy and reducing the ability to be drug-free. On the contrary, re-establishing a network of non-drug-using friends who can lend their support would generate positive social capital, protecting the subject from re-associating with drug-using friends, increasing self-efficacy, and finally contributing to reaching the goal of maintaining drug-free status. The implication of this finding is obvious. How a treated addict re-organizes or re-establishes his/her social circle is a crucial juncture in his/her pathway to recovery/ relapse.\par
Most of the present programs would remind students to stay away from former Drug-using friends. But some students would go back to live in their original drug Neighbourhood if no new arrangements of location are made for them after leaving the Program. Those programs that are able to help treated clients to acquire collective rental accommodations far from their original neighbourhood do offer a better protective measure for the student. In order to better protect treated addicts against re-associating with drug-using friends, the collaboration of other agencies and government departments would be necessary. For example, the Housing Department may help to make it easier for this group of people to be re-located to other districts under the Compassionate Re-housing Scheme.\par
To compete with drug-using friends in winning the treated addicts, many programs have organized social activities for treated clients to socialize with exaddicts and to help each other and are extremely useful in helping treated addicts to stay away from the danger of re-association with drug-using peers, and in facilitating the re-learning and re-practicing of a normal life among treated students, through either informal interaction or more structured recovery training.\par
All of these aftercare efforts are paramount to the building of positive social capital in treated addicts. More should be done to expand existing strategies, develop new and innovative ones, so that more social capital can be generated for use by treated clients. 
\section[{? Facilitating Satisfaction with Life}]{? Facilitating Satisfaction with Life}\par
While the life of treated addicts is full of hardship, the dissatisfaction with life Induced by relative deprivation can be even more destructive than material shortage.\par
Treated addicts must be taught to reset their aspiration levels, so that there is a balance between what they are able to achieve and the achievements they aspire to.\par
Inculcating a realistic aspiration level in them can facilitate more satisfaction of life, which would in turn result in longer abstinence. How to effectively help treated addicts to identify realistic goals and be satisfied with them is a big challenge to counselors of existing programs. Addicts in different stages of addiction or stages of life would have different abilities, needs, and aspirations. An important step is to assess the different needs and abilities of addicts in different stages of life, and then help them to meet their needs, and foster their abilities to achieve their goals, in the context of realistic aspirations. Therefore, there is a need to create awareness of the fact that certain goals can still be achieved after rehabilitation process.\begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{}\includegraphics[]{image-2.png}
\caption{\label{fig_1}}\end{figure}
    \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.85\textwidth}}
7.\\
Volume XVI Issue IV Version I\\
D D D D ) B\\
(\\
Medical Research\\
Global Journal of\end{longtable} \par
  {\small\itshape [Note: 6. Availability of the Drugs: In many countries, drugshave dropped in prices as supplies have increased.]} 
\caption{\label{tab_0}}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.8140547263681592\textwidth}P{0.035945273631840795\textwidth}}
\tabcellsep Year 2016\\
the following are signs and symptoms of drug abuse. They are: A. Signs of Drug Used and Drug Paraphernalia i. Possession of drug related paraphernalia such as pipes, rolling paper, small decongestant ii. Possession of drugs, peculiar plants or bolts, seeds of leaves in ashtrays or clothing pockets. iii. Odour of drugs, smell of incense or other cover up\tabcellsep Volume XVI Issue IV Version I\\
scents. B. Identification with Drug Culture\tabcellsep ( D D D D ) B\\
i. Drug related magazines, slogans on clothing\tabcellsep \\
ii. Hostility in discussing drugs\tabcellsep \\
C. Signs of Physical Deterioration\tabcellsep \\
i. Memory lapses, short attention span, difficulty in\tabcellsep \\
concentration.\tabcellsep \\
ii. Poor physical coordination, slurred or incoherent\tabcellsep \\
speech; unhealthy appearance, indifference to\tabcellsep \\
hygiene and grooming\tabcellsep \\
iii. Bloodshot eyes, dilated pupils.\tabcellsep \\
D. Changes in Behavior\tabcellsep \\
i. Distinct downward performance in school place of\tabcellsep \\
work.\tabcellsep \\
ii. Increased absenteeism or tardiness.\tabcellsep \\
iii. Chronic dishonesty, lying; cheating and stealing.\tabcellsep \\
iv. Trouble with the police and other law enforcement\tabcellsep \\
agencies\tabcellsep \\
v. Change of friends, evasiveness in talking about new\tabcellsep \\
ones.\tabcellsep \\
vi. Increasing and inappropriate anger, hostility,\tabcellsep \\
irritability etc.\tabcellsep \\
vii. Reduce motivation, energy, self-discipline, self-\tabcellsep \\
esteem etc.\tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
  {\small\itshape [Note: © 2016 Global Journals Inc. (US)]} 
\caption{\label{tab_1}}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.044705469845722295\textwidth}P{0.8052945301542777\textwidth}}
\tabcellsep .\\
\tabcellsep Other effects of substance abuse include:\\
\tabcellsep a. Psychological effect: Although initial drug use may\\
\tabcellsep be voluntary, drugs have been shown to alter brain\\
\tabcellsep chemistry, which interferes with an individual's ability\\
\tabcellsep to make decision and can lead to compulsive\\
\tabcellsep craving, seeking, and use which later leads to\\
\tabcellsep substance dependency.\\
\tabcellsep b. Behavioral Effect such as paranoia, aggressiveness,\\
\tabcellsep hallucinations, addiction, impaired judgment,\\
\tabcellsep impulsiveness, loss of self-control, e.t.c.\\
\tabcellsep c. Peer or Age group effect: Substance-abusing youth\\
\tabcellsep often are alienated from and stigmatized by their\\
\tabcellsep peers. Adolescents using alcohol and other drugs\\
\tabcellsep also often disengage from school and community\\
Volume XVI Issue IV Version I\tabcellsep activities, depriving their peers and communities of the positive contributions they might otherwise have made. d. Effect on relations and families: In addition to personal adversities, the abuse of alcohol and other drugs by youth may result in family crises and jeopardize many aspects of family life, sometimes resulting in family dysfunction. Both siblings and parents are profoundly affected by alcohol and drug involved youth 20. e. Delinquency: There is an undeniable link between substance abuse and delinquency. Arrest,\\
( D D D D ) B\tabcellsep adjudication, and intervention by the juvenile justice system are eventual consequences for many youths\\
Medical Research\tabcellsep engaged in alcohol and other drug abuse. Chapter Three III. Methodology\\
Global Journal of\tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
  {\small\itshape [Note: a)]} 
\caption{\label{tab_4}}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{} \par 
\begin{longtable}{}
\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_5}}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.01276668373442567\textwidth}P{0.7755760368663595\textwidth}P{0.0011606076122205155\textwidth}P{0.0017409114183307732\textwidth}P{0.049180747567844345\textwidth}P{0.009575012800819252\textwidth}}
\tabcellsep 200 LEVEL:\tabcellsep 8\tabcellsep x 230 = 1\tabcellsep At Pharmacy Technician: The three existing levels or 200 LEVEL: 15 = 8\\
\tabcellsep 100 LEVEL:\tabcellsep 1934 23\tabcellsep = 8\tabcellsep arms in Pharmacy Technician department were 2\\
\tabcellsep \multicolumn{3}{l}{3 At Medical Laboratory Technician: The three existing levels or arms in Medical Laboratory Technician 200 LEVEL: 28 = 9}\tabcellsep randomly picked. 300 LEVEL: 16 100 LEVEL: 25 2\tabcellsep = 8 x 230 = 3\\
\tabcellsep \multicolumn{3}{l}{department were randomly picked. 3}\tabcellsep 1934 Thus, 8 was used as sampling interval for 100,\\
Global Journal of Medical Research Year 2016 Volume XVI Issue IV Version I ( D D D D ) B\tabcellsep \multicolumn{4}{l}{selected department At Health Education: The two existing levels or arms in Health education department were randomly picked; 100 LEVEL: 35 1934 x 230 = 4 200 LEVEL: 76 1934 x 230 = 9 At Bio-Medical Engineering: The two existing levels or arms in Bio-Medical Engineering department were randomly picked. 100 LEVEL: 15 1934 x 230 = 2 200 LEVEL: 23 1934 x 230 = 3 At Health Information Management: The three existing levels or arms in Health Information Management 100 LEVEL: 180 1934 x 230 = 21 200 LEVEL: 150 1934 x 230 = 18 300 LEVEL: 176 1934 x 230 = 21 200 LEVEL: 300 LEVEL: At Public Health Nursing: The two existing levels or arms 1 Sample size 28 15 1934 x 230 = 2 in Public Health Nursing department were randomly picked. Thus, 8 was used as sampling interval for both 100 and 200 Level Bio-Medical Engineering Department. At Health Information Department sampling interval is: 100 LEVEL: 180 21 = 9 200 LEVEL: 67 300 LEVEL: 39 Thus, 8 was used as sampling interval for 100, interval is: 5 At Pharmacy Technician Department sampling = 8 Department. 8 interval for 100 Level of Ophthalmic Nursing = 8 200 and 300 Level while 11 was used as sampling 6 1934 3 100 LEVEL: 50 Thus, 9 was used as sampling interval for both = 8 x 230 = 3 200 LEVEL: 23 = 8 Department sampling interval is: 4 department were randomly picked. 100 LEVEL: 30 1934 x 230 = 4 existing levels or arms in Community Health Extension Worker department were randomly picked. 100 LEVEL: 50 1934 x 230 = 6 200 LEVEL: 67 1934 x 230 = 8 300 LEVEL: 39 1934 x 230 = 5 At X-Ray Technician: The three existing levels or arms in X-ray technician department were randomly picked. 100 LEVEL: 23 1934 x 230 = 3 Health Education Department. At Bio-Medical Engineering Department sampling interval is: 100 LEVEL: 15 2 = 8 100 LEVEL: 30 4 = 8 Thus, 8 was used as sampling interval of 100 Level of Orthopaedic Department. At Community Health Extension Worker 100 LEVEL: 21 = 11 2 200 LEVEL: 36 = 9 4 300 LEVEL: 36 = 9 Proportion allocated to each level At Health Education Department sampling interval is: 100 LEVEL: 35 4 = 9 200 LEVEL: 76 9 = 8 while 8 was used as sampling interval for 200 Level of At Orthopaedic Department sampling interval is: At Ophthalmic Nursing Department sampling interval is: Thus, 9 was used as sampling interval for 100 300 LEVEL: 176 21 = 8 Thus, 9 was used as sampling interval for 100 Level while 8 was used as sampling interval for both Department. interval for 300 Level of Health Technician Department. 200, and 300 Level of Health Information Management 200 LEVEL: 84 = 8 10 300 LEVEL: 29 = 10 3 Thus, 8 was used as sampling interval for both 100 and 200 Level while 10 was used as sampling ? Total number of students in each level ? = The Sampling Interval. 23 At Community Health Extension Worker: The three 100 LEVEL: 120 200 LEVEL: 15 x 230 = 2 300 LEVEL: 15 = 8 200 and 300 Level of Pharmacy Technician Department. x 230 = 14 1934 200 LEVEL: 113 1934 300 LEVEL: 16 x 230 = 2 2 At Food Hygiene Department sampling interval is: Thus, 8 was used as sampling interval for both x 230 = 13 1934 100 and 300 Level while 9 was used as sampling 100 LEVEL: 25 = 8 1934 300 LEVEL: 70 interval for 300 Level of X-ray Technician Department. 3 At Food Hygiene: The three existing levels or arms in x 230 = 8 At Public Health Nursing Department sampling 200 LEVEL: 29 = 10 Food Hygiene department were randomly picked. 1934 100 LEVEL: 25 interval is: 3 x 230 = 3 At Health Technician: The three existing levels or arms in Health Technician department were randomly picked. 100 LEVEL: 190 x 230 = 23 1934 200 LEVEL: 84 x 230 = 10 1934 300 LEVEL: 29 x 230 = 3 1934 At Ophthalmic Nursing: The three existing levels or arms in Ophthalmic Nursing department were randomly picked. 100 LEVEL: 21 x 230 = 2 1934 200 LEVEL: 36 x 230 = 4 1934 300 LEVEL: 36 x 230 = 4 100 LEVEL: 190 = 8 At Health Technician Department sampling interval is: j) Data Collection thus; 1934 1934 200 LEVEL: 29 1934 x 230 = 3 300 LEVEL: 29 100 LEVEL: 5 = 5 1 300 LEVEL: 29 = 10 3 200 LEVEL: 8 Thus, 8 was used as sampling interval for 100 = 8 Level while 10 was used as sampling interval for both 1 x 230 = 3 200, and 300 Level of Food Hygiene Department. Thus, 5 was used as sampling interval 100 1934 At Dental Health Technician: The three existing levels or arms in Dental Health Technician department were randomly picked. 100 LEVEL: 43 1934 x 230 = 5 200 LEVEL: 74 1934 x 230 = 9 300 LEVEL: 59 Second Stage: The first step at this stage was the use of systematic random sampling in each of the department x 230 = 7 1934 Level while, 8 was used as the sampling interval of 200 Level of Public Health Nursing Department. At Medical Laboratory Technician Department sampling interval is: 100 LEVEL: 120 = 9 14 300 LEVEL: 70 = 9 8 Thus, 9 was used as sampling interval for 100, 200, and 300 Level of Medical Laboratory Technician Department. At Dental Health Technician Department sampling interval is: 100 LEVEL: 43 = 9 5 200 LEVEL: 74 = 8 9 200 LEVEL: 113 = 9 300 LEVEL: 59 = 8 13 7}\tabcellsep ( D D D D ) B Year 2016 Volume XVI Issue IV Version I\\
\tabcellsep \multicolumn{3}{l}{At Orthopedic Technician: The only existing level or arm in orthopedic department was picked. 200 LEVEL: 150 3 18 = 8 100 LEVEL: 25 = 8}\tabcellsep 100 LEVEL: Worker Department. 5 1934 200, and 300 Level of Community Health Extension x 230 = 1\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep © 2016 Global Journals Inc. (US)\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_7}}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{41} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.53125\textwidth}P{0.1275\textwidth}P{0.19125\textwidth}}
Variable\tabcellsep Frequency\tabcellsep Percentage (\%)\\
Age group (in years)(N=220)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
16 -20\tabcellsep 70\tabcellsep 31.8\\
21 -25\tabcellsep 100\tabcellsep 45.5\\
26 -30\tabcellsep 35\tabcellsep 15.9\\
Above 30\tabcellsep 15\tabcellsep 6.8\\
Total\tabcellsep 220\tabcellsep 100\\
Gender(N=220)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Male\tabcellsep 119\tabcellsep 54.1\\
Female\tabcellsep 101\tabcellsep 45.9\\
Total\tabcellsep 220\tabcellsep 100\\
Marital Status(N=220)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Single\tabcellsep 156\tabcellsep 70.9\\
Married\tabcellsep 54\tabcellsep 24.6\\
Divorced\tabcellsep 10\tabcellsep 4.5\\
Total\tabcellsep 220\tabcellsep 100\\
LEVEL(N=220)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
100\tabcellsep 91\tabcellsep 41.4\\
200\tabcellsep 78\tabcellsep 35.4\\
300\tabcellsep 51\tabcellsep 23.2\\
Total\tabcellsep 220\tabcellsep 100\\
Family Background(N=220)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Polygamous\tabcellsep 157\tabcellsep 71.4\\
Monogamous\tabcellsep 63\tabcellsep 28.6\\
Total\tabcellsep 220\tabcellsep 100\\
Who they presently live with(N=220)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Parents\tabcellsep 60\tabcellsep 27.3\\
Friends\tabcellsep 86\tabcellsep 39.1\\
Alone\tabcellsep 74\tabcellsep 33.6\\
Total\tabcellsep 220\tabcellsep 100\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_8}Table 4 . 1 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{42} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.5473892405063291\textwidth}P{0.2488132911392405\textwidth}P{0.05379746835443038\textwidth}}
Variable\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Frequency Percentage (\%)}\\
Source of information on substance abuse(N=220)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Hospital\tabcellsep 25\tabcellsep 10.9\\
Radio\tabcellsep 20\tabcellsep 8.7\\
Television\tabcellsep 35\tabcellsep 15.3\\
Poster\tabcellsep 20\tabcellsep 8.7\\
Friend\tabcellsep 58\tabcellsep 25.4\\
School\tabcellsep 40\tabcellsep 17.5\\
Seminar\tabcellsep 15\tabcellsep 6.5\\
Others(multiple choice)\tabcellsep 15\tabcellsep 6.5\\
Involvement in substance abuse(N=220)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Yes\tabcellsep 150\tabcellsep 68.2\\
No\tabcellsep 70\tabcellsep 31.8\\
Total\tabcellsep 220\tabcellsep 100\\
\multicolumn{2}{l}{Knowledge of health hazard associated with taking drugs without}\tabcellsep \\
doctor's prescription(N=220)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Yes\tabcellsep 115\tabcellsep 52.3\\
No\tabcellsep 105\tabcellsep 47.7\\
Total\tabcellsep 220\tabcellsep 100\\
Increased efficiency due to substance abuse(N=150)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Yes\tabcellsep 120\tabcellsep 80.0\\
No\tabcellsep 30\tabcellsep 20.0\\
Total\tabcellsep 150\tabcellsep 100\\
Substances frequently abused(N=150)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Cigarette\tabcellsep 15\tabcellsep 10.0\\
Opioids\tabcellsep 30\tabcellsep 20.0\\
Amphetamines\tabcellsep 25\tabcellsep 16.7\\
Alcohol\tabcellsep 80\tabcellsep 53.3\\
Total\tabcellsep 150\tabcellsep 100\\
Table 4.2 shows that 25(10.9\%) people heard of\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{25(16.7\%) are familiar with amphetamines while}\\
substance abuse from hospital, while 20(8.7\%) heard\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{80(53.3\%) are familiar with alcohol. A total of 150(80\%)}\\
from radio, 35(15.3\%) heard from television, 20(8.7\%)\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{are involved in substance abuse while 70(20\%) aren't.}\\
from poster, 58(25.4\%) from friends, 40(17.5\%) from\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Out of the 150 that are involved in substance}\\
school, 15(6.5\%) from seminar, while 15(6.5\%) heard\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{abuse, 120(80\%) experiences increased efficiency while}\\
from more than one source. Also, 15(10\%) are familiar\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{30(20\%) claims not to experience.}\\
with cigarette while 30(20\%) are familiar with opioids,\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Section C: Level of Substance Abuse\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_9}Table 4 . 2 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{43} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.5547904191616767\textwidth}P{0.15523952095808383\textwidth}P{0.1399700598802395\textwidth}}
Variable\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Frequency Percentage (\%)}\\
Time it took to adapt(N=150)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Days\tabcellsep 97\tabcellsep 64.7\\
Weeks\tabcellsep 30\tabcellsep 20.0\\
Months\tabcellsep 23\tabcellsep 15.3\\
Total\tabcellsep 150\tabcellsep 100\\
Administration of specific dose(N=150)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Yes\tabcellsep 115\tabcellsep 76.7\\
No\tabcellsep 35\tabcellsep 23.3\\
Total\tabcellsep 150\tabcellsep 100\\
Route of Administration(N=150)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Orally\tabcellsep 90\tabcellsep 60.0\\
Parenteral\tabcellsep 45\tabcellsep 30.0\\
Inhalation\tabcellsep 15\tabcellsep 10.0\\
Total\tabcellsep 150\tabcellsep 100\\
Frequency of Consumption(N=150)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Daily\tabcellsep 117\tabcellsep 78.0\\
Hourly\tabcellsep 23\tabcellsep 15.3\\
Weekly\tabcellsep 10\tabcellsep 6.7\\
Total\tabcellsep 150\tabcellsep 100\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_10}Table 4 . 3 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.4973277074542897\textwidth}P{0.08607594936708861\textwidth}P{0.17215189873417722\textwidth}P{0.09444444444444444\textwidth}}
Variable\tabcellsep Frequency\tabcellsep Percentage (\%)\tabcellsep \\
Academic Performance Rate(N=220)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Fair\tabcellsep 60\tabcellsep 27.3\tabcellsep \\
Average\tabcellsep 40\tabcellsep 18.2\tabcellsep \\
Good\tabcellsep 60\tabcellsep 27.3\tabcellsep \\
Very Good Excellent Total Progression in performance after consuming substance(N=150)\tabcellsep 30 30 220\tabcellsep 13.6 13.6 100\tabcellsep Year 2016\\
Yes No\tabcellsep 30 120\tabcellsep 20.0 80.0\tabcellsep 35\\
Total Source of money to purchase substance(N=150) School fee Odd jobs Parents Multiple choice Financial instability due to substance abuse(N=150) Yes No Total Those that have been asked to cut down intake(N=150) Yes No Total To what extent Minimal\tabcellsep 150 23 47 80 7 92 58 150 95 55 150 38\tabcellsep 100 15.3 36.4 40.9 3.2 61.3 38.7 100 63.3 36.7 100 40.0\tabcellsep Volume XVI Issue IV Version I\\
Total Abstinence Total\tabcellsep 57 95\tabcellsep 60.0 100\tabcellsep ( D D D D ) B\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep Medical Research\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep Journal of\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep © 2016 Global Journals Inc. (US)\tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_11}}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{45} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.11826086956521739\textwidth}P{0.27347826086956517\textwidth}P{0.11826086956521739\textwidth}P{0.11826086956521739\textwidth}P{0.13304347826086957\textwidth}P{0.08869565217391304\textwidth}}
Gender\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Involvement Yes No}\tabcellsep Chi-square\tabcellsep Degree of freedom\tabcellsep P-value\\
Male\tabcellsep 113(97\%)\tabcellsep 6(3\%)\tabcellsep 85.868\tabcellsep 1\tabcellsep 0.000\\
Female\tabcellsep 37(36.6\%)\tabcellsep 64(63.4\%)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_12}Table 4 . 5 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{46} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.19051724137931034\textwidth}P{0.2686781609195402\textwidth}P{0.17097701149425287\textwidth}P{0.07327586206896552\textwidth}P{0.08793103448275862\textwidth}P{0.05862068965517241\textwidth}}
Age group\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Involvement Yes No}\tabcellsep Chi-square\tabcellsep Degree of freedom\tabcellsep P-value\\
16 -20\tabcellsep 43(61.4\%)\tabcellsep 27(38.6\%)\tabcellsep 6.883\tabcellsep 3\tabcellsep 0.100\\
21 -25\tabcellsep 75(75\%)\tabcellsep 25(25\%)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
26 -30\tabcellsep 25(71.4\%)\tabcellsep 10(28.6\%)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
30 and above\tabcellsep 7(46.7\%)\tabcellsep 8(53.3)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_13}Table 4 . 6 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{4} \par 
\begin{longtable}{}
\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_14}Table 4 .}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{47} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.1957236842105263\textwidth}P{0.2348684210526316\textwidth}P{0.16217105263157894\textwidth}P{0.0894736842105263\textwidth}P{0.1006578947368421\textwidth}P{0.06710526315789474\textwidth}}
Marital Status\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Involvement}\tabcellsep Chi-square\tabcellsep Degree of Freedom\tabcellsep P-value\\
\tabcellsep Yes\tabcellsep No\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Single\tabcellsep 118(75.6\%)\tabcellsep 38(24.4\%)\tabcellsep 15.876\tabcellsep 2\tabcellsep 0.000\\
Married\tabcellsep 25(46.3\%)\tabcellsep 29(53.7\%)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Divorced\tabcellsep 7(70\%)\tabcellsep 3(30\%)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_15}Table 4 . 7 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{48} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.08814814814814814\textwidth}P{0.277037037037037\textwidth}P{0.20148148148148148\textwidth}P{0.09444444444444444\textwidth}P{0.11333333333333333\textwidth}P{0.07555555555555556\textwidth}}
Level\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Involvement}\tabcellsep Chi-square\tabcellsep Degree of Freedom\tabcellsep P-value\\
\tabcellsep Yes\tabcellsep No\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
100\tabcellsep 70(76.9\%)\tabcellsep 21(23.1\%)\tabcellsep 4.709\tabcellsep 2\tabcellsep 0.025\\
200\tabcellsep 49(62.8\%)\tabcellsep 29(37.2\%)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
300\tabcellsep 31(60.8\%)\tabcellsep 20(39.2\%)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_16}Table 4 . 8 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{4} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.4186567164179104\textwidth}P{0.43134328358208956\textwidth}}
8 shows that respondents from 100\tabcellsep revealed that the observation is statistically significant\\
level are more involved in substance abuse than\tabcellsep because its p-value of 0.025 is less than the 0.050 alpha\\
respondents from other departmental level, the table\tabcellsep level of significance\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_17}Table 4 .}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{49} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.2262589928057554\textwidth}P{0.21402877697841724\textwidth}P{0.13453237410071942\textwidth}P{0.09172661870503597\textwidth}P{0.11007194244604317\textwidth}P{0.07338129496402877\textwidth}}
Family Background\tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{Involvement}\tabcellsep Chi-square\tabcellsep Degree of Freedom\tabcellsep P-value\\
\tabcellsep Yes\tabcellsep No\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Polygamous\tabcellsep 108(68.8\%)\tabcellsep 49(31.2\%)\tabcellsep 0.102\tabcellsep 1\tabcellsep 0.975\\
Monogamous\tabcellsep 42(66.7\%)\tabcellsep 21(33.3\%)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_18}Table 4 . 9 :}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{4} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.374\textwidth}P{0.306\textwidth}P{0.1088\textwidth}P{0.017\textwidth}P{0.0034\textwidth}P{0.0408\textwidth}}
Year 2016\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Volume XVI Issue IV Version I\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
D D D D ) B\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
(\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Medical Research\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Global Journal of\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Departmental Level\tabcellsep \multicolumn{4}{l}{Knowledge of substance abuse Chi-square Degree of Freedom}\tabcellsep P-value\\
\tabcellsep Yes\tabcellsep No\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
100\tabcellsep 40(78.4\%)\tabcellsep 11(21.6\%)\tabcellsep 3.256\tabcellsep 2\tabcellsep 0.200\\
200\tabcellsep 50(64.1\%)\tabcellsep 28(35.9\%)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
300\tabcellsep 60(65.9\%)\tabcellsep 31(34.1\%)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_19}Table 4 .}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{} \par 
\begin{longtable}{}
\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_20}Table}\end{figure}
 \begin{figure}[htbp]
\noindent\textbf{} \par 
\begin{longtable}{P{0.13316666666666668\textwidth}P{0.20116666666666666\textwidth}P{0.07933333333333334\textwidth}P{0.07366666666666667\textwidth}P{0.04533333333333334\textwidth}P{0.14166666666666666\textwidth}P{0.17566666666666667\textwidth}}
Who they presently live with\tabcellsep \multicolumn{3}{l}{Frequency of Consumption Hourly Daily Weekly}\tabcellsep Chi-square\tabcellsep Degree of Freedom\tabcellsep P-value\\
Parents\tabcellsep 6(16.7\%)\tabcellsep 12(33.3\%)\tabcellsep 18(50\%)\tabcellsep 22.748\tabcellsep 4\tabcellsep 0.000\\
Friends\tabcellsep 20(31.3\%)\tabcellsep 30(46.9\%)\tabcellsep 14(21.9\%)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
Alone\tabcellsep 30(60\%)\tabcellsep 10(20\%)\tabcellsep 10(20\%)\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep Year 2016\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep Volume XVI Issue IV Version I\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep D D D D ) B\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep (\\
\tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \tabcellsep \multicolumn{2}{l}{© 2016 Global Journals Inc. (US)}\end{longtable} \par
 
\caption{\label{tab_21}}\end{figure}
 			\footnote{© 2016 Global Journals Inc. (US)} 		 		\backmatter  			 
\subsection[{Appendix i}]{Appendix i}\par
College of Health Science and Technology, Ijero Ekiti Department of Pharmacy Technician. Questionnaire An Assessment of Substance Abuse among Students of College of Health Science and Technology Ijero Ekiti.\par
The research is a required academic exercise; therefore all gathered information shall only be used for academic reasons. Your anonymity is highly guaranteed, provision of true information can advance the knowledge. Thanks for your anticipated co-operation. 
\subsection[{Instruction: Tick ( ) as appropriate please.}]{Instruction: Tick ( ) as appropriate please.}\par
Section A			 			  				\begin{bibitemlist}{1}
\bibitem[ Medical Laboratory Technician]{b38}\label{b38} 	 		\textit{},  	 	 		\textit{Medical Laboratory Technician}  		120 p. .  	 
\bibitem[
			X-Ray
		]{b39}\label{b39} 	 		\textit{},  		 			X-Ray 		.  	 	 		\textit{Technician}  		23 p. .  	 
\bibitem[ Health Information Management]{b40}\label{b40} 	 		\textit{},  	 	 		\textit{Health Information Management}  		180 p. .  	 
\bibitem[ Opthalmic Technician]{b41}\label{b41} 	 		\textit{},  	 	 		\textit{Opthalmic Technician}  		21 p. .  	 
\bibitem[ Biomedical Engineering]{b42}\label{b42} 	 		\textit{},  	 	 		\textit{Biomedical Engineering}  		15 p. .  	 
\bibitem[ Health Technician]{b43}\label{b43} 	 		\textit{},  	 	 		\textit{Health Technician}  		190 p. .  	 
\bibitem[ Dental Health Technician]{b44}\label{b44} 	 		\textit{},  	 	 		\textit{Dental Health Technician}  		43 p. .  	 
\bibitem[ Public Health Nursing]{b45}\label{b45} 	 		\textit{},  	 	 		\textit{Public Health Nursing}  		5 p. .  	 
\bibitem[ Orthopedic]{b46}\label{b46} 	 		\textit{},  	 	 		\textit{Orthopedic}  		30  (30) .  	 
\bibitem[ Community Health Extension Workers]{b47}\label{b47} 	 		\textit{},  	 	 		\textit{Community Health Extension Workers}  		50 p. .  	 
\bibitem[ Junior Community Health Extension Workers]{b48}\label{b48} 	 		\textit{},  	 	 		\textit{Junior Community Health Extension Workers}  		50 p. .  	 
\bibitem[ Human Nutrition Department]{b49}\label{b49} 	 		\textit{},  	 	 		\textit{Human Nutrition Department}  		17 p. .  	 
\bibitem[ Occupational Health And Safety]{b50}\label{b50} 	 		\textit{},  	 	 		\textit{Occupational Health And Safety}  		2 p. .  	 
\bibitem[ Health Education]{b51}\label{b51} 	 		\textit{},  	 	 		\textit{Health Education}  		35 p. .  	 
\bibitem[ Food Hygiene]{b52}\label{b52} 	 		\textit{},  	 	 		\textit{Food Hygiene}  		25 p. .  	 
\bibitem[ Environmental Health Technician]{b53}\label{b53} 	 		\textit{},  	 	 		\textit{Environmental Health Technician}  		75 p. .  	 
\bibitem[ Environmental Health Assistant]{b54}\label{b54} 	 		\textit{},  	 	 		\textit{Environmental Health Assistant}  		35 p. .  	 
\bibitem[ Joint Admissions Matriculation Board Brochure ()]{b27}\label{b27} 	 		\textit{},  	 	 		\textit{Joint Admissions Matriculation Board Brochure}  		2006/2007:1.  	 
\bibitem[Nnachi ()]{b19}\label{b19} 	 		\textit{Advanced psychology of learning and scientific enquiries},  		 			R O Nnachi 		.  		2007. Enugu: J.J. Classic Publishers Ltd.  	 
\bibitem[Okorodudu and Okorodudu ()]{b25}\label{b25} 	 		‘An overview of conduct problems of the Nigerian child’.  		 			R Okorodudu 		,  		 			G N Okorodudu 		.  	 	 		\textit{Journal of the Nigerian Society for Educational Psychologists}  		2004. p. .  	 
\bibitem[Balogun ()]{b4}\label{b4} 	 		‘Chronic intake of separate and combined alcohol and nicotine on body maintenance among youths’.  		 			S K Balogun 		.  	 	 		\textit{Journal of Human Ecology}  		2006. 19  (1)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Mba ()]{b17}\label{b17} 	 		\textit{Counselling techniques for the rehabilitation of drug addicts in Nigeria, The Counsellor},  		 			A I Mba 		.  		2008. 18 p. .  	 
\bibitem[Manbe ()]{b16}\label{b16} 	 		\textit{Crime and drug abuse among Nigerian youths: A critical examination in World Health Organization},  		 			D A Manbe 		.  		2008.  	 
\bibitem[Did you know that taking drugs without doctor's prescription could be dangerous to your health? Yes ( Amphetamines(]{b31}\label{b31} 	 		‘Did you know that taking drugs without doctor's prescription could be dangerous to your health? Yes (’.  	 	 		\textit{Amphetamines(}  		14.  	 	 (Alcohol(. To Determine the Level of Substance Abuse among Students. 15. Do you feel better or work efficiently if you don't take the substance? Yes (. No () 
\bibitem[Esen ()]{b8}\label{b8} 	 		‘Discipline in schools’.  		 			A J A Esen 		.  	 	 		\textit{Journal of the Cross River}  		1970. 1  (1)  p. 40.  	 
\bibitem[Abdulahi ()]{b0}\label{b0} 	 		‘Drug abuse among youths’.  		 			Z Abdulahi 		.  	 	 		\textit{The Nigerian Society of Educational Psychologists},  				 (Jos; Nigeria)  		2009. p. .  	 
\bibitem[Fawa ()]{b10}\label{b10} 	 		‘Drug abuse eradication program in schools’.  		 			M S Fawa 		.  	 	 		\textit{Strategies for counselling, management and control}  		A. Garba (ed.)  		2003. Matasa Press.  	 
\bibitem[Drug abuse, Unpublished Pamphlet Adolescents Health Information Project (AHIP) ()]{b2}\label{b2} 	 		‘Drug abuse, Unpublished Pamphlet’.  	 	 		\textit{Adolescents Health Information Project (AHIP)}  		2001. AHIP Centre.  	 
\bibitem[Drug data collection and research, Lagos: Drug Demand Reduction Unit ()]{b18}\label{b18} 	 		\textit{Drug data collection and research, Lagos: Drug Demand Reduction Unit},  		1997.  		 			National Drug Law Enforcement Agency ; National Drug Law Enforcement Agency 		 	 
\bibitem[Fayombo and Aremu ()]{b11}\label{b11} 	 		‘Drug education and its effects on the educational performance of some adolescents drug abusers in Ibadan’.  		 			G A Fayombo 		,  		 			S Aremu 		.  	 	 		\textit{The Counsellor},  				2000. 18 p. .  	 
\bibitem[Agunlana ()]{b3}\label{b3} 	 		‘Family structure and prevalence of behaviour problems among Nigerian adolescents’.  		 			G G Agunlana 		.  	 	 		\textit{The Counsellor},  				1999. 17 p. .  	 
\bibitem[Eze and Omeje ()]{b9}\label{b9} 	 		\textit{Fundamentals of substance abuse},  		 			J E Eze 		,  		 			Omeje 		.  		1999. Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd.  	 
\bibitem[Has there been any progression in your performance since you started taking the substance Yes (]{b34}\label{b34} 	 		\textit{Has there been any progression in your performance since you started taking the substance Yes (},  		 	 	 (No () 
\bibitem[How do you feel if you take any of it? High morale]{b32}\label{b32} 	 		\textit{How do you feel if you take any of it? High morale},  				pp. others specify (.  	 	 (increased energy (. increased efficiency () 
\bibitem[If yes to 11 how do you source for the drug?]{b30}\label{b30} 	 		\textit{If yes to 11 how do you source for the drug?},  		 	 
\bibitem[Ekpo ()]{b6}\label{b6} 	 		\textit{Marijuana is very harmful},  		 			A U Ekpo 		.  		1981. Nigerian Gong. p. .  	 
\bibitem[No ( ) 30. If yes to question 29 above specify__________________________ 31. Has your physician ever advised you to cut down the intake of such substance? Yes ( Have you been diagnosed of any ailment since you started taking the substance? Yes (]{b36}\label{b36} 	 		‘No ( ) 30. If yes to question 29 above specify\textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore  31. Has your physician ever advised you to cut down the intake of such substance? Yes (’.  	 	 		\textit{Have you been diagnosed of any ailment since you started taking the substance? Yes (},  				32.  	 	 (If yes to what extent? Minimal (. Total abstinence (. Appendix ii) 
\bibitem[Others specify 7 What kind of family are you from? Polygamous (]{b28}\label{b28} 	 		‘Others specify 7’.  	 	 		\textit{What kind of family are you from? Polygamous (},  				 (Friend)  		 	 	 (Mother (. Section B: To Assess the Knowledge of Substance Abuse) 
\bibitem[Others specify____________________ 10. If yes to question 8 above, what is your view about substance abuse__ 11 If yes to question 8 above, from which source? Hospital (]{b29}\label{b29} 	 		‘Others specify\textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore \textunderscore  10. If yes to question 8 above, what is your view about substance abuse\textunderscore \textunderscore  11’.  	 	 		\textit{If yes to question 8 above, from which source? Hospital (},  				 	 	 (Television (. Have you ever been involved in drug abuse before? Yes(. No() 
\bibitem[Haladu ()]{b12}\label{b12} 	 		\textit{Outreach strategies for curbing drug abuse among out-of-school youth in Nigeria: A challenge for community Based Organization (CBOS)},  		 			A A Haladu 		.  		2003.  	 
\bibitem[Johnson ()]{b14}\label{b14} 	 		‘Power Relaxations and affective style as determinants on confidence in impression formation in a game situation’.  		 			M P Johnson 		.  	 	 		\textit{Journal of Experimental Social Psychology}  		1979. 7 p. .  	 
\bibitem[Enakpoya ()]{b7}\label{b7} 	 		‘Prevalence of drug abuse among Nigerian adolescents: Implication for counselling’.  		 			E Enakpoya 		.  	 	 		\textit{The Counsellor}  		2009. 26  (2) .  	 
\bibitem[Idowu ()]{b13}\label{b13} 	 		‘Prevalence of smoking and drug abuse among students in Ilorin metropolis: Implications for Counselling’.  		 			A Idowu 		.  	 	 		\textit{Journal of Education}  		1987. 7 p. .  	 
\bibitem[Obiamaka ()]{b20}\label{b20} 	 		‘Problem behaviours in Nigerian secondary schools’.  		 			V O Obiamaka 		.  	 	 		\textit{Nigeria Society for Education Psychologists (NISEP)},  				2004. p. .  	 
\bibitem[Okuh ()]{b24}\label{b24} 	 		‘Problems of secondary school learners’.  		 			B Okuh 		.  	 	 		\textit{Careers}  		1978. 2  (3) .  	 
\bibitem[Oduaran ()]{b22}\label{b22} 	 		\textit{Psychological guidance of the school child},  		 			D Oduaran 		.  		1978. Ibadan, Evans Books.  	 
\bibitem[Odejide (2000)]{b21}\label{b21} 	 		‘Research, prevention and treatment of alcohol and drug abuse in Nigeria: Problem and prospects’.  		 			A O Odejide 		.  	 	 		\textit{Jos}  		2000. 5th October.  	 	 (Paper Presented at the 10th Anniversary Lecture of CRISA) 
\bibitem[Section D: Consequences of Substance Abuse among Students of Cohest 25. How would you rate your performance at school Fair (]{b33}\label{b33} 	 		\textit{Section D: Consequences of Substance Abuse among Students of Cohest 25. How would you rate your performance at school Fair (},  		 	 	 (Average (. Very good (. Excellent () 
\bibitem[Bandura ()]{b5}\label{b5} 	 		\textit{Social foundations of thought and action; A social cognitive theory Engle wood Cliffs},  		 			A Bandura 		.  		1986. NJ: Prentice Hall.  	 
\bibitem[Okoye ()]{b26}\label{b26} 	 		‘The Nigerian adolescent in perspective. A Publication of the Nigerian Society for Education. 29. www.google.com 30’.  		 			N N Okoye 		.  		 \url{www.wikipedia.com31.www.cohealthtechijero.org/index.html32.www.doublegist.com/drug-abuse-secondary-school-students-implications-counselling}  	 	 		\textit{The adolescents and hard drugs: A psychological concern in R.U.N},  				 			\& R O Okonkwo,  			Okoye 		 (ed.)  		2001.  	 
\bibitem[Ogunremi and Rotini ()]{b23}\label{b23} 	 		‘The Nigerian teenage and the use of drug’.  		 			O O Ogunremi 		,  		 			D O Rotini 		.  	 	 		\textit{African Journal of Psychiatry}  		1979. 5  (1\&2)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Kobiowu ()]{b15}\label{b15} 	 		‘The social and academic implications of drug abuse among undergraduates: A case study of the Obafemi Awolowo University’.  		 			S V Kobiowu 		.  	 	 		\textit{International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation}  		2006. 11  (1)  p. .  	 
\bibitem[Adesina ()]{b1}\label{b1} 	 		\textit{The use of Indian hemp and drugs among secondary school students in Lagos},  		 			S Adesina 		.  		1975. Lagos: University Press.  	 
\bibitem[Total Population of Students in College of Health Sciences and Technology]{b37}\label{b37} 	 		\textit{Total Population of Students in College of Health Sciences and Technology},  		Ijero Ekiti.  	 
\bibitem[Where do you get money to purchase it? School fee (]{b35}\label{b35} 	 		\textit{Where do you get money to purchase it? School fee (},  		pp. others specify (.  	 	 (Odd jobs () 
\end{bibitemlist}
 			 		 	 
\end{document}
